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flrot^raphicr 

Sciences 
Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.  Y.  14S80 

(716)872-4903 


H. 


CIHiVI 
Microfiche 
Séries 
(l\/lonographs) 


M 


«'■, 


ICMH 

Collection  de 
microfiches 
(monographies) 


* 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  canadien  de  microreproductions  historiques 


Tachnical  and  Bibliographie  Notti  /  Notas  tachniquai  at  bibliographiquat 


Th#( 
tb  th 


Tha  Inttitute  has  attamptad  to  obtain  tha  batt  original 
eopy  availabla  for  f ilming.  Faaturat  of  thii  copy  which 
may  ba  bibliographically  uniqua.  which  may  altar  any 
of  tha  ifnagat  in  tha  raproduction,  or  which  may 
•ignificantly  changa  tha  usual  mathod  of  filming,  ara 
chackad  balow. 


P 

D 
D 

n 
n 

D 

n 

D 
D 

n 


Coloured  cevart/ 

Couvartura  da  coulaur  ]'-'^ 

Covars  damagad/ 
Couvartura  andommagéa 

Covari  rastorad  and/or  laminatad/ 
Couvartura  rattauréa  at/ou  palliculéa 

Covar  titia  mitsing/ 

La  titra  6i  couvartura  manqua 

Colourad  maps/ 

Cartai  géographiquat  an  coulaur 

Colourad  ink  (i.a.  othar  than  blua  or  Mack)/ 
Encra  da  coulaur  (i.a.  autra  qua  Maua  ou  noira) 

Colourad  platas  and/or  illustrations/ 
Planchas  at/ou  illustrations  an  coulaur 

Bound  with  pthar  matarial/ 
Rallé  avac  d'autras  documants 

Tight  binding  may  causa  shadows  or  distortion 
•long  intarior  margin/ 

La  raliura  sarréa  paut  causar  da  l'ombra  ou  da  la 
distonion  la  long  da  la  marga  intériaura 

Blank  laavas  addad  during  rastoration  may  appaar 
within  tha  taxt.  Whanavar  possiMa.  thata  hava 
baan  omittad  from  filming/ 
Il  sa  paut  qua  cartainas  pagas  blanchas  ajoutias 
tors  d'una  rastauration  apparaissant  dans  la  taxta, 
mais,  lorsqua  cala  était  possiMa.  cas  pagas  n'ont 
pas  été  filméas. 


v/ 


Addittonal  commants:/ 
Commantairas  supplémantairas: 


Varlous  pagings. 


L'Institut  a  microfilmé  la  maillaur  axamplaira  qu'il 
lui  a  été  possibla  da  sa  proçurar.  Las  détails  da  cat 
axamplaira  qui  sont  paut-étra  uniquas  du  point  de  vue 
bibliographkiua,  qpi  pauvant  modifier  une  image 
reproduite,  ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  une  modification 
dans  la  méthode  rKirmala  de  f  limage  sont  indiqués 
ci-dessous. 

□  Coloured  pages/ 
Pages  de  couleur 

□  Pagas  damagad/ 
P^as  endommagées 


□ 


Piges  restorad  «n^pr  laminatad/ 
Pagas  restaurées  at/ou  pelliculées 


Q  Pagas  disoolourad.  stainad  or  foxed/ 
Pages  décolorées,  tachetées  ou  piquées 

□  Pages  datachad/ 
Pagas  détachées 

QShowthrough/ 
Transparence 

□  Qualhy  of  print  varias/  ^ 

Qualité  inégala  de  l'impression 

□  Contitiuous  pagination/ 
Pagination  continua 


Indudes  index(es)/ 
Comprend  un  (des)  index 

Title  on  header  taken  from:/ 
Le  titre  de  l'en-téte  provient: 

Titie  page  of  issue/ 

Page  de  titre  de  la  livraison 


Thfi 
posa 
of  th 
fiimii 


Origi 

bagii 

ttitlj 

sion, 

oth«i 

first 

•ion-, 

or  ilii 


D 


r~~~|  Caption  of  issue/ 


D 


Titre  de  départ  de  la  livraison 

Masthaad/ 

Générkiue  (périodiques)  de  la  livraison 


<A 


Thaï 
•hall 
TINU 
whici 

Mapi 
diffai 
•ntiri 
bagir 
right 
raqui 
math 


« 

This  itam  is  filmed  at  tha  réduction  ratio  checked  below/  \ 
Ce  document  est  filmé  au  taux  de  réduction  indiqué  ci-desapus 

10X                              14X                              18X 

22^^ 

26X 

- 

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s 

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y 

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12X 

m 

W 

24X 

28X 

32X 

Thé  copy  filmad  h«r«  has  b««n  r«produc«d  thanks 
tb  th«  ^anarôtity  of  : 

Library  of  the  National 
Archives  of  Canada 


Thf  imagM  appaaring  hara  ara  tha  baat  quality 
pÔHibla  cbnaidf  ring  tHa  conditiort  and  tagibility 
of  tha  original  copy  and  in  kaaplrig  with  tha 
fiiming  contract  apacificationa. 


Original  copiai  in  printad  papar  covara  ara  fiimad 
baginning  with  tha  front  covar  and  anding  on 
tha  last  paga  with  a  printad  orjlluatratad  impraa- 
sion,  or  tha  back  covar  whan  appropriata.  Ali 
othar  original  eopiaa  ara  fiimad  baginning  on  tha 
firit  paga  with  a  printad  or  iiluatratad  impraa- 
aion-,  and  anding  on  tha  iaat  paga  with  a  printad 
or  iiluatratad  impraaaion. 


Tha  tatt  racordad  f rama  on  aach  microficha  '^ 
ahall  contain  tha  symbol  -^  (maaning  "CON- 
TIMUED").  or  tha  symbol  ▼  (maaning  "END"), 
whichavar  applias. 


L'axamplaira  filmé  fut  raproduit  grica  à  la 
générosité  da:  <  . 

La  bibnothèque  des  Archives 
nationales  du  Caruda 

Las  imagas  suivantas  ont  été  raproduitas  avac  la 
plus  grand  soin,  compta  tanu  da  la  condition  at 
da  la  nanaté  da  l'axamplaira  filmé,  at  an 
conformité  avac' las  conditions  du  contrat  da 
filmaga. 

Las  axamplairas  originaux  dont  la  couverture  en 
papier  est  imprimée  sont  filmés  en  commençant 
par  la  premier  plat  et  en  terminent  soit  per  la 
dernière  pege  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impreesion  ou  d'illustretion.  soit  per  le  second 
plat,  aalon  le  cas.  Tous  les  eutres  exemplaires 
originaux  sont  filmés  9n  commencent  per  le 
première  paga  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration  et  en  terminant  par 
la  dernière  paga  qui  comporte  une.  telle 
empreinte. 

Un  des  symboles  suh/ents  appsreître  sur  le 
dernière  imege  de  chèque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  le  symbole  ~^  signifie  "A  SUIVRE",  le 
symbole  V  signifie  "FIN  ". 


'           Maps.  plates,  charte,  etc.. 

may  be  filmed  at 

Les  cartes,  plenc 

hes.  tebleaux.  etc..  peuvent  être 

différent  réduction  retios.  Those  too  large  to  be 

filmés  é  des  taux  da  réduction  différents. 

antirely  included  in  one  expoeure  ère  filmed 

Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grend  pour  être 

.  beginnihg  in  the  upper  left  hend  corner,  left  to 

reproduit  en  un  spui  cliché,  il  est  filmé  é  pertir 

right  and  top  to'bottom.  as  many  framee  as 

de  l'engle  supérieur  geuche.  de  geuche  è  d^ite. 
et  de  heut  en  bes,  en  prenent  le  nombre 

required.  The  following  diegrems  illustrata  the 

method: 

d'imeges  nécesssire.  Les  diegrammes  suî&ants 

illustrent  le  méthode. 

• 

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1 

2 

3     . 

A 

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^^msiifmiisam^fâShmmmi 


^■■:  \- 


CHEMICAL  AND  GEOLOGICAL 


ESSAYS 


BT 


THOMAS  STEERY  HUNT,  LL  D., 

Fellow  of  the  Royal  Sodety  of  London  ;  Member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  iCthe 

United  Sûtes,  the  Impérial  Leopoldo-Carolinian  Academy,  the  American 

Fhllosophical  Society,  the  American  Academy  of  Sciences, 

the  G^Iogical  Sodetles  of  Franco  and  Belgium 

Jlhd  of  Ireland  ;  Officer  of  the  Order 

"  of  the  Lef^on  of  Honor, 

etc.,  etc.,  etc.  i 


•  ; 


/ 


SECOND  EDITION, 

EKVISfeD,    WITH    ADDITIONS. 


SALEM:    ■ 
S.   E.    C  ASSINO.- 

Natorausts'  AoDtcr. 


é       *• 


\\ 


\^u'fim   ^i^f  n*  i*'»<-    *.4i      v\     j,i-<i,i,    n^i 


■'m 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1874. 

BT  JAMES  R.   OSOOOD  ft  CO., 

in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian.of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


COPYBIOHT,  1878,  BY  &    E.  I^ASSIKO. 


Univbssity  Pxass 


».^ 


"  »  /  1 


ir^^r-fm 


^^ 


.#•'' 


TO 


JAMES  HALL, 


m  HECOGNITION  OF  UASY  TEAB8  OF  FBIÏSkDSHIP, 


X 


Cifis  Folamt  (s  Bettcattli 

/ 

•         BY  ^•.;    , 

THE    AUTHOB. 


v_ 


f 


PREFACE, 


\ 


4  . 


In  choosing  fifom  a  large  nmnber  the  following  papers  for 
republication,  it  may  be  well  to  state  the  considerationa  which 
hâve  guided  the  author  in  his  sélection.  ,JHis  researches  and 
his  conclusîolfe  as  to  the  chemistry  of  the  air,  the  waters,  and 
the  earth  in  past'  and  présent  times,  the  origin  of  limestones, 
dolomites,  and  gypsums,  of  minend  waters,  petroleum,  and  me- 
talliferous  deposits,  the  génération  of  silicated  minerais,  the 
theoiy  of  mechanical  and  chemical  sédiments,  and  the  t»igin 
of  crystalline  rocks  and  vein-stones,  induding  erupted  roÉMand 
volcanic  products,  cover  nearly  ail  the  more  important  pfints 
in  chemical  geology.  They  hâve,  moreover,  been  by  him  con- 
nected  with  the  hypothesis  of  a  cooling  globe,  and  with  certain 
views  of  geological  dynamics,  making  together  a  complète 
scheme  of  chemical  and  physical  geology,  the  outlines  of  which 
will  be  found  embodied  in  essays  I.-XIII.  of  the  présent 
collection.  It  was  at  one  time  proposed  to  rewrite  for  this 
volume  the  first  seven  of  thèse,  giving  them  a  more  connected 
form,  and  thereby  avoiding  some  little  répétition;  bu^jt  is 
thought  better  to  reproduce  them  in  the  shape  in  which  they 
originally  appeared,  and  this  chiefly  for  the  reason  that  they 
seem  to  the  author  to  hâve  a  certain  historié  t^ue,  and  serve 
to  fix  the  dates  of  the  origin  and  development  of  views,  some 
of  which,  after  meeting  for  a  time  with  neglect  or  with  activa— 


'feuf^^r^s**^?-»^  «».<A>iJji^*"^W  ' 


t: 


VI 


PBKFAi 


.ci 


! 


opposition,  are  now  beginning  to  find  fevor  in  the  eyes  of  the 
scientific  world.  That  such  will  be  the  ultimate  fate  of  othera 
herein  contained,  and  not  yet  genejçally  received,  the  author 
is  persuaded.  It  has  been  his  ,fortun^  to  enunciate,  in  very 
many  cases,  views  for  which  his  fellow-workere  were  not  pre- 
pared,  and  after  a  lapse  of  yeare  to  find  thèse  views  ^roponnded 
by  others  as  new  discoveriea  or  original  conclusions.  Natu-o 
rally  désirons,  however,  of  vindicating  his  claims  to  priority  in 
certain  of  thèse  matters,  he  feels  that  the  best  way  of  attain- 
ing  this  jresult  is  to  reprint  the  original  essays.  It  should  be 
said  that  two  of  tiiese,  namely,  IV.  and  XII.,  were  given  as 
popular  lectures,  and  are  thus  unlike  the  others  in  method 
and  style. 

The  reproduction  of  the  papers  on  the  Geology  of  the  Alps 
and  the  History  of  Cambriau  and  Silurian  requires,  it  is  con- 
ceived,  no  explanation,  inasmuch  as,  apart  from  their  gênerai 
interest,  they  serve  to  throw  great  light  upon  many  questions 
raised  in  the  essay  on  the  Geognosy  of  the  Appàlachians  as  to 
the  origin  and  âge  of  their  rocky  strata. 

As  regards  the  five  papers  which  are  placed  àt  the  end,  of  the 
volume,  the  author  reprints  them  for  the  reason  that,  incom- 
plète and  fragmentary  as'  they  are,  they  hâve  a  certain  value  in 
the  history  of  chemioal  theory;  and,  moreover,  contain,  in 
his  opinion,  the  germs  of  a  philosophy  of  chemistry  and  miner- 
alogy  which  he  hopes  one^^y  to  develop  himself  or  to  see 
developed  by  otheis. 

In  preparing  this  collection  for  the  press,  the  author  has  been 
compelled  by  the  limits  assigned  to  the  volume  to  omit  several 
papers  which  would  else  hâve  found  a  place  hère,  and  to  abridge 
others.  In  some  cases,  paragraphs  bave  been  rewrittCA  and 
additions  made,  which  are  distinguished  by  being  placed  in 
brackets.    Explanatory  notes  are  given,  and  introdactory  and 


-  .'v-'-*  ■  f  — « 


'^^S,.'-\  i. 


SSK»»!»*'*™ 


'  jf  M  ■ât<J'W"'  1 


FBEF. 


ACB. 


VU 


historical  eketches  pre^éd,  with  références  both  to  otïier  papere 
in  this  volume  and  to  many  which  hâve  been  omitted.  Kead 
with  thèse  aids,  and  with  the  help  of  the  table  of  contents  and 
index,  this  volume  will,  it  is  believed,  sufiBce  to  give  clear  and 
connected  notions  of  tlje  author's  views  on  the  various  questions 
herein  discuflsed.  . 

'  T.  S.  H. 
BosTOW,  Mass.,  SeptemW,  187^. 


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N      J 


-  ■    V   - 

PRÉFACE^. 

Ti)  THE   SECOND   EDITION. 


Imt  reyising  this  volume  for  a  new  édition,  it  was  felt  that 
tb^întroduction  of  any  ohaagM  in  th§  Essaya  themselveé  . 
woùld  be  at  variance  with  the  plan  of  the  work.  which  was  to 
préserve  in  their  original  form  certain  papers,  tbe  value  of 
which  is  in  part  historicaL  Theflauthor  haa  therefore  co»^ 
fined  himself  to  the  correction  of  typQgraphical  errors  in,  tbe 
tezt  ;  but  takes  tbis  occasion  to  pvesènt  some  /xtended  oom- 
ments  and  critioal  notes  upon  certain  geological  questioQS 
discussed  j^r  tbe  Essaya,  with  regard  to  which  decided  progrosa 
bas  been  mtfde  aince  tbe  publication  of  tbe  firat  e<ïition.     ' 

On  pages  46  -  48  is  a  aiiggestion,  made  màny  yçara  since, 
regarding  tbe  question  of  tbe  température  of  tbe  earth'a  aur- 
lace  in  former  geological  perioda,  which,  from  ita  bearings, 
both  direct  and  indirect,  on  aomb  récent  geological  theeries, 
calla  for  ferther  notice.  >From  ,the  great  amount  of  carborf 
and  hydrocarbona  of  ongania  origin  found  in  thÇ  rocky  strata 
of  the  eartb,  it  haa  long  been  mferred  that  tbe  atmosphère  of 
eàrlier  timea  muât  bava  oontainèd  a  large  quantity  of  carbonic 
droxyd,  which  yielded^p  ita  carbon.  for  the  nutrition  of  Ibe 
anqient  fieras.  Frôm  thia  tbe  late  Méydr  Edwiû  R  Hunt 
conduded  that  the  atmosphère  in  former  perioda  being  much 
dênaer^ban  at  presentftte  temperatt»e  at  the  earth'a  surfade^^ 


^J 


fc^^*^ï*iii!*^*..^lV«a^X^rf  -A 


i-^:î%t^^£^ 


\'     '--■    ,-  ■■;   'V 


V    / 


X  PREFACE. 

due  to  Bolar  radiation,  would,  fce  greater  than  now.  It  waa 
subsequently  pointed  out  by  the  présent  writer  that,  as  already 
shown  by  Tyndall,  the  relations  of  carbonic  dioxyd  to  radiant 
beat  are  such  thaï  a  quantity  of  this  gas  too  smoll  to  afiect 
considerably  the  weight  of  the  atmospheric  colump  \rould,  by 
preventing  the  loss  of  beat,  suffice  to  produce  a  tropical  tem- 
pérature over*the  earth  at  the  sea-level. 

The  quantity  of  carbon  which  bas  been  removed  from  the 
air  by  végétation  in  past  âges  is,  however,  very  considérable. 
In  a  communication  by  the  writer  to  the  American  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  at  Buffalo,  in  1866,  it 
was  stated  that  the  whole  am^unt  of  free  oxygen  in  the  prés- 
ent atmosphère  is  no  more  than  sufficient  to  form  carbonio 
dioxyd  with  the  carbon  of  a  layeV  of  coal  covering  the  globe 
one  meter  in  thiokness,  and  that  the  aggregate  of  carbonaceous 
matter  in  the  earth's  cynist  would  probably.much  «xceed  this. 
Such  a  layer  of  coal,  of  spécifie  grayity  1.25,  w^Jid  bave  a 
weight  eqoal  to  3,160,000  gross  tons  to  the  square  mile,  while 
Mr.  J.  L.  Mott,  in  a  communication  to  the  British  Association 
for  the  Adrancement  of  Science,  in  1877,  estimâtes  the  total' 
amount  of  carbonaceous  substances  in  the  earth  at  not  less 
than  3,000,000  tons  of  carbon  to  the  square  mile,  aad  probably 
many  times  greater.  This  minimum  amount  of  pure  carbon 
is  equal  to  600  times  the  prçsent..»mount  of  carbonic  dioxyd 
in  the  atmosphère,  or  to  nearly  one  fourth  its  entirc  volume  ; 
and,  inasmuch  as  the  fixation  of  carbon  by  végétation  libérâtes 
a  corresponding  volume  of  oxygen,  would  represent,  accordingl 
to  him,  a  greater  amount  of  this  gas  than  the  présent  atmoEK 
phere  contains.  In  addition  to  this,  it  must  be  considered 
that  the  composition  of  the  varions  l^drocarbonaceous  min- 
erais shows  a  deoxydation  not  only  of  carbonio  dioxyd  butof 
water.^   ThejRmpnnt  of  liberated  oxygen  derived  from  water 


■•Wi,'  >. 


'<-,  f 


f 


If 


»    ,-( 


PREFACK 


XI 


equals,  for^the  various  coals  and  asphalts,  from  one  eightb  to 
one  fourth,  and  for  the  petroleums  one  half  of  that  set  free 
in  the  deoxydation  of  the  carbon  which    thèse  hydrocar- 
bonaceous  bodies  contain.    To  this  must  be  added  also  the 
oxygen  set  free  in  the  génération  of  metaUic  snlphids  by  the 
debxydation  of  sulphates,  which  is  effected  through  the  agency 
of  organic  matters,  and  indirectlv  Hberates  oxygen.     Against 
this  we  must  however  set  tl^nknown   but   very  consid- 
érable amount  of  Ô^cygen  absorbed  in  the  peroxydation  of 
ferrous  oxyd  liberate^  in  the  decay  of  the  silicates  of  crys- 
talline  rocks;  which  nîay,  perhâps,  serve  to  explain  the  dis- 
appearance  from  the  aîi:  of   the  whole   of  this  excess  of 
oxygen.  » 

The  terrestrial  vegetatf^  and  the  air-breathing  fauna,  which 
we  find  from  paleozoic  âges,  are,  it  is  unnecessary  to  remark, 
incompatible  with  an  atmosphère  holding  one  fourth  its  vol-  ' 
urne  of  carbonic  dioxyd,  and  the  difficulty  of  the  problem  is 
greatly  increased  when  we  consider  that  this  amount,  cor- 
responding  to  the  carbon  fixed  in  the  earth's  crust  in  deoxy- 
dized  forms,  is  insignificant  when  compared  with  that  which 
has  been  absorbed  during  the  décomposition  of  silicated  rocks, 
and  is  now  fixed  in  the  forra  of  limestones.     The  magnitude 
of  this  process  is  seen  when  we  consider  that  ail  the  ai^l- 
laceous  rocks  and  clays  of  the  stratified  formations  hâve  come 
from  the  decay  of  the  feldspars  and  other  silicates  of  the 
earlier  eozoio  t^rranes  through  the  intervention  of  carboriio 
dioxyd,  and  that  the  resulting  alkaline  and  earthy  .carbonates 
are  now  represented  by  ^e  limestones  so  abundant  in  the 
earth's  crust.     It  was  shown,  in  the  author's  communication 
already  quoted,  that  a  layer  of  pure  limestone  covering  the 
earth's  surface  to  a  depth  of  about  twenty-eight  feet  (8.61 


0 


inoters)  corresponds  taiiff  âmount^rca?bonîc  dïoxp^wh]^ 


#!■  7' 


■;M:"*ft".»^i  ■':*^^v->'V;'"''-*-!^  "■■■ 


•..^^. . 


XU 


PREFACE. 


r$: 


if  set  free,  would  double  the  weight  of  the^  présent  atmos- 
phère, aad  the  existence  of  great  limestone  and  dolomite 
formations,  many  hundred  feet  in  thicknesK  at  différent  geo- 
logical  horizons  over  wide  areas,  will,  it  is  believed,  jiistify  the 
conclusion  that  the  eartb's  crust  coutaiiui,  fixed  in  the  form 
of  carbonates,  an  omount  of  carbonic  dioxyd  which,  if  liberated 
in  a  gaseous  form,  would  be  equal  in  wbight  to  at  least  two 
hundred  atmosphères  like  the  presêuc  one.  A  portion  of 
this  carbonic  acid  was  doubtless  sepaa^ted  at  an  early  period 
in  the  history  of  our  globe,  since  the^imestones  of  the  eozoio 
rocks  are  of  considérable  thickness,  and  those  of  more  récent 
times  are  in  part  derived  from  the/ solution  and  redeposition 
of  the  older  limestones. 

The  only  known  sources  of  carbonic  dioxyd,  apart  from 
combustion  and  respiration,  are  certain  terrestrial  exhalations 
of  the  gas,  probably  due  to  chemical  reactions  liberating  small 
portions  which  had  long  before'been  fixed  in  the  form  of  car- 
bonates. We  are  thus  forced^xo  one  of  two  conclusions  :  either 
the  whoUy  improbable  one  tnat  the  atmosphère  since  the  ap- 
pearance  of  organio  life  oiy/the  earth  bas  been  one  of  nearly 
pure  carbonic  dioxyd,  aua  of  such  immense  extent  that  the 
pressure  at  the  surface  would  bave  sufficed,  at  ordinary  tem- 
pératures, for  îts  liquefaraion;  or  else,  the  atmosphère  being  so 
constituted  as  to  permw  vital  processes,  that  carbonic  dioxyd, 
as  fast  as  removed  by  ohemical  action  at  the  earth's  sur- 
face, was  Bupplied  from  some  extra-terrestrial  source.  We 
may,  in  accordance  Wth  this  last  hypotbesis,  admit  that  the 
atmospheiv  is  not  /terrestrial  but  cosmical,  and  that  the 
air,  together  with  the  wàter  surrounding  our  globe  (whether 
in  a  liquid  or  a  vaporous  state),  belongs  to  a  common  elas- 
tio  médium  which,  extending  throughout  the  iuterstellary 
spaces,  is  oondensyi  around  attracting  bodies  in  amounts  pro- 


PREFACE. 


XUl 


portional  to  their  mass  and  température,  while  ih  the  régions 
most  distant  from  thèse  centres  of  attraction,  this  universal 
atmosphère  would  ezist  in  the  state  of  greatest  tepuity. 
Such  being  the  case,  a  change  in  the  atmosphère  of  any  globe, 
whether  by  the  absorption  or  disengagement  of  any  gas  or 
vapor,  would,  by  the  laws  of  dififusion  and  of  static  equilibrium, 
be  felt  everywhere  throughout  the  universe  ;  and  the  fixation 
of  carbonic  dioxyd  at  the  suH'ace  of  our  planet  would  not  only 
bring  in  a  supply  of  this  gas  from  the  worlds  beyond,  but,  by 
reducing  the  total  amount  of  it  in  the  universal  atmosphère, 
'  would  dimiuish  the  atmospheric  pressure  at  the  siuface  of  our 
own  and  of  other  worlds. 

This  hypothesis  is  not  altogether  new.  Sir  William  R. 
Grove,  in  1842,  put  forth  the  notion  that  the  médium  of  beat 
and  light  may  be  "an  universally  diffused  matter,"  and  subse- 
quently,  in  1843,  in  his  oelebrated  Essay  on  the  Corrélation 
of  Pbysical  Forces,  in  the  chapter  on  Light,  concludes,  with 
regard  to  the  atmosphère  of  the  sun  and  the  planets,  that 
there  is  no  reason  why  thèse  atmosphères  "should  not  be, 
with  référence  to  each  other,  in  a  state  of  equilibrium.  Ether, 
which  term  we  may  apply  to  the  highly  attenuated  matter 
existing  in  the  interplanetary  spaces,  being  an  expansion  of 
some  or  ail  of  thèse  atmosphères,  or  of  the  more  volatile  por- 
tions of  them,  would  thus  fumish  matter  for  the  transmission 
of  the  modes  of  motion  which  we  call  light,  beat,  etc.,  and 
possibly  minute  portions  of  thèse  atmosphères  may,  by  graduai 
accretions  and  subtractions,  paas  from  planet  to  planet,  form- 
ing  a  link  of  material  communication  between  the  distant 
monads  of  the  universe."  Subsequently,  in  his  address  as 
Président  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science,  in  1866,  Grove  farther  suggested  that  this  difiused 
matter  might  be  a  source  of  solar  beat,  inasmuoh  as  the  sun 


*CtlJ4rti^'j 


t^i/Sft,. 


r- 1. 


XIV 


PBEFACK 


may  "condense  gaseous  matter  as  it  travels  in  space,  and  so 
beat  may  be  produced." 

In  1870,  Mr.  W.  Mattieu  Williams,  who  does  uot  seem  to 
bave  been  acquainted  witb  thèse  views,  published  his  in- 
génions work  entitled  "The  Fuel  of  the  Sun,"  which  is  little 
more  than  a  development  of  the  suggestions  of  Grove.  The 
source  of  solar  beat,  according  to  him,  is  the  condensation  by 
the  sun  of  the  attenuated  matter  or  ether  everywhére  encoun- 
tered  by  that  body  in  its  fnotion  through  interstellary  space. 
The  beat  which,  from  sun  and  planets,  is  radiated  into  space,  is 
thus  first  absorbed  by  the  ether,  and  then  again  conoentrated 
and  redistributed  by  the  sun. 

Dr,  P.  Martin  Duncan,  in  his  address  as  Président  of  the 
Geological  Society  of  London,  in  May,  1877,  without  noticing 
the  pri<Mtfty?«f  Grove,  bas  adopted  from  Williams  the  notion  of 
a  cosmieal  atmosphère,  but  supposes  that  thè  sun,  in  vîrtue 
of  its  greater  mass,  is  •  slowly  attracting  to  itself  the  greater 
part  of  the  eartb's  atmospheric  envelope.  From  this  view  he 
proceeds  to  deduce  important  geological  considérations,  con- 
ceiving  that,  from  the  greater  height  of  the  terrestrial  atmos- 
phère, which,  according  to  his  hypothesis,  must  bave  prevailed 
in  former  âges,  there  would  bave  resulted  a  higher  tempéra- 
ture at  the  eartb's  surface,  more  aqueous  vapor,  a  more  equa- 
ble  climate,  and  a  prolonged  twilight  at  the  pôles.  From  a 
more  abuqdant  précipitation  greater  sub-aerial  denudation 
would  follow,  and  altbougb  local  glaciation  of  bigh  mouutains 
might  occur,  the  existence  of  masses  of  ice  at  the  eartb's 
surface,  or  for  some  thousands  of  feet  above  it,  would  be 
impossible. 

If,  however,  the  principles  which  hâve  been  already  ad- 

vanced  are  correct,  it  is  not  to  solar  attraction  that  we  are 

=Jto^  attribute  a  prc^rMHÏvft  diminution  in  the  height  of  the 


^Hiuai^f^f  !)•»''  i^  .  A|!WJ>#,  v,l|jl.l'    ,  «Stt  '0.Wi.B!i,t^t£lS^'ftjil,^W(!f5.  d*ji'l'ivS«^V*  '^i  s^t-dii^' fej>A  jMOiÊiÂl 


'* 


-*^'i-- 


PREFACE. 


XV 


atmospheric  column,  but  to  the  various  processes  going  on  in 
the  worlds,  whareby  the  atmospheric  éléments  are  condensed 
in  the  form  of  liquid  water  or  fixed  as  hydrates,  oxyds,  or 
carbonates.  The  opération  of  such  processes  in  our  own  aûd 
other  planets  in  past  âges  must  bave  produced  a  considérable 
réfrigération  of  climate  by  reducing  the  weight  of  the  atmos- 
phère, and  a  still  more  marked  resuit  of  the  sarae  kind  by 
diminishing  the  proportion  of  carbonio  diôxyd  contained 
therein,  as  ha»  already  been  pointed  out. 

Two  questions  hère  présent  themselves  in  connection  with 
the  problem  of  the  earth's  climatô  from  the  appearance  of 
terrestrial  végétation  until  now  :  1.  Has  the  mean  annual 
température  of  the  globe  during  this  period  ever  been  less  î 
2.  Has  it  ever  been  greater  than  at  présent  1  It  is  shown  by 
paleontological  évidence  that  a  very  warm  or  subtropical 
climate  prevailed  over  the  arctic  régions  during  the  carbonifer- 
ous,  triassic,  jurasaic,  and  lower  cretaceous  tiraes,  following 
which  we  find  in  the  upper  cretaceous  a  commencement  of 
réfrigération,  although  yntil  the  close  of  the  mioceae  a  végé- 
tation Uke  that  now  characterizing  the  middle  temperate 
zone  flourished  in  far  northem  latitudes.  After  this  came  the 
cold  of  the  pliocène  âge,  which,  with  some  variations,  has 
continued  until  now.  That  the  arctic  cold  has  at  times  ex- 
tended  over  certain  continental  areas  farther  southward  than 
at  présent,  is  undoubted;  but  this  — the  mean  annual  tem- 
pérature of  the  globe  being  the  same  as  now^might  resuit 
from  changea  geographical  conditions.  A  new  distribution  of 
land  and  water  might  bring  back  again  the  reindeer  to  France, 
or  give  to  Labrador  the  climate  of  Ireland.  More  than  this, 
geographical  changes  are  conceivablegwhjch,  parmitting.  the 
yinflux  of  warm  currents  into  the  polaï  seas,  would   create 


*  -  »  j 


y 


XVI 


^EFACE. 


^ 


h'» 


^studies  «^  Nordenskiold  hâve,  howet>er,  shown  that  a  wann 
climate  prevailed  there  in  the  carboniferou9  âge  over  a 
great  area  of  land,  which  supported  a  colossal  végétation  not 
unlike  thât  then  flouriahing  in  the  intertropical  climates  of 
the  earth.  It  is  inconceivable  that,  with  an  atmosphère  con- 
stituted  like  that  of  the  présent  day,  any  geographical  condi-' 
tions  could  màintain  during  the  long  winter  nights  such  a 
climate  in  insular  régions,  and  still  less  over  a  continental  area 
within  the  polar  circle.  We  are  therefore  forced  to  the  çonclu- 
„  sion  that  geographical  changes,  though  a  true  cause  of  local 
variations  of  climate,  and  adéquate  to  explain  the  greater 
réfrigération  of  certain  areas  since  the  commencement  of  the 
pliocène,  are  not  sufficient  to  acoount  for  the  warmer  climates 
of  préviens  âges  ;  and  we  conclude  that  the  cause  of  thèse  is 
to  be  found  in  the  former  greater  volume  and  différent  chemi- 
cal  constitution  of  the  atmosphère,  as  already  set  forth. 

This  viçw  is  opposed  to  the  hypothesis  maintained  by  many 
geologists  of  an  altemation  of  warm  and  glacial  climates  at 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  repeated  from  the  earlier  times. 
Dawson  and  Heer,  however,  from  the  study  of  the  fossil  floras 
found  in  arctic  régions  from  the  Devonian  to  the  miocène, 
.conclude  that  paleontology  afFords  no  évidence  of  such  a  con- 
dition of  things,  and  the  observations  of  McCoy,  Hector,  and 
Hutton  in  the  so^them  hémisphère  lead  them  to  similar  con- 
clusions. The  nursery  of  thèse  successive  northem  floras 
appears  to  hâve  been  in  the  arctic  régions,  and  their  spread 
sôilthward  would,  according  to  Dawson,  be  due  to  continental 
élévations,  bringing  about,  at  irregular  periods,  a  cooler  cli- 
mate in  the  northem  temperate  zone.  It  may  even  be 
conceived,  as  well  remdrked  by  J.  F.  Campbell,  that  such  élé- 
vations might  bring  large  areas  of  the  earth's  surface  into  the 
région  of  perpétuai  frost,  thus  giving  rise  to  local  glacial 


éÊ^ii»AllltJ^iç^'>ikSSÈ^M>^tài^/Mifiâ^àXMàÂiiSa^i^i^:i)^ù^  .«l%}|lÀ$£^^& 


-V  . 


PREFACE. 


XVli 


o 


phenomena,  while  a  warm  climate  prevailed  ererywhere  at 
the  sea-level.  Nordenskiold  déclares  that  he  soughl  in  vain 
for  évidences  of  ice-action  in  the  varions  sedimeutary  deposits 
of  Spitzhergen. 

In  regard  to  a  suggested  explanation  of  former  climatic 
conditions,  the  author  may  be  pennitted  to  quote  the  foliole-  ; 
iug  language  uaed  by  him  in.  1876.     «Récent  fpeculations 
hâve  revived  the  old  notion  of  a  possible  change  of  the  earth's  '. 
axis  of  rotation,  as  a  way  of  explainiug  this  change  of  arctic 
climate;  but  such  a  phenomenon  is  astronomically  in^robable, 
and  is  also  opposed  by  the  fact  that  the  direction  of  the 
oceanic  currents,  which  are  guided  by  the  earth's  rotation, 
appears,  from  the  distributipn  of  marine  sédiments,  to  bavé 
been  the  same  since  vexy  early  ^riods."  *     Dawgon  bas  silice 
urged  the  same  argument,  and  reinforced  it  by  recalling  the 
fact  that  the  southward  migrations  of  successive  floras,  not  less 
than  the  Unes  of  distribution  of  mechanical  sédiments  in  past 
âges,  show  that  from  early  paleozoic  time  the  gênerai  courses 
of  the  oceanie  currents,  and  consequently  th^  position  of  the 
earth's  axis,  bave  not  changed. 

In  connection  with  the  hypothesis  of  a  universal  atmos- 
phère may  be^  mentioned  a  spéculation  which  was  put  forth 
by  the  author' in  an  address  delivered  by  him  in  July,  1874,  * 
at  the  grave  of  Priestley,  in  Northumberland,  Pennsylvania! 
erttitled  "A  Century's  Progresa  in  Theoretical  Chemistry," 
and  published  in  the  American  Chemist  for  that  year  (vol.  V., 
pp.  46-51).  An  extraot  therefrom,  under  the  title  of  "Celestial 
Chemistry,"  appeared  in  the  Popular  Science  Monthly  (vol. 
VIL,  p.  420).  In  that  address,  after  referring  to  the  résulta  of 
the  spectroscopic  study  of  the  stars,  and  to  the  increase  in  the 
Chemical  complexity  of  their  spectra  which  appeare  in  passing 

Jo^^hg  ^h|te  to  the  y^U^w  and  «d ittawHt^raa  BsidT - 

•  Harpefr's  Annnal  Record  of  Science  for  1876,  p.  cil      • 


rj. 


i^0UiVf  vl&iifjtfASj!^   ^ 


<*^^bf"  &î**.5*4l. 


XVIU 


PREFACE. 


t^- 


"  If,  in  accordance  with  the  nebular  hypothesia,  we  look 
upon  thcso  différent  types  of  atars  as  representing-  successive 
stages  in  the  process  of  condensation  from  nebula  to  planet, 
we  may  also  see  in  them  a  graduai  évolution  of  the  more  com- 
plex  from  the  simpler  forms  of  matter  by  a  process  of  celestial 
chemistry.  Such  was  the  view  put  forward  by  F.  W.  Clarke, 
in  January,  1873,*  and  some  months  later  by  Lockyer,  who 
lias  reiterated  and  enforced  thèse  suggestions,  and  moreover 
connected  them  with  the  spéculations  of  Dumas  on  the  com- 
posifld  nature  of  the  éléments.  ....  I  ventured  in  1867, 
while  speculating  on  the  phenomena  of  dissociation,  to  remark 
that,  although  ffbm  the  expérimenta  of  the  laboratory  we  can 
ogly  conjecture  the  complet  nature  of  the  so-called  elementary 
substances,  we  may  expect  that  their  '  further  dissociation  in 
stellar  or  nebulous  masses  may  give  us  évidence  <^{  matter  still 
more  elemental.'  "  f       '        - 

The  green  line  io  the  spectriim  of  the  solar  chromosphere,  , 
which  bas  been  supposed  to  show  therein  the  existence  of-a 
hitherto  unknown  gaseous  élément,  was  then  noticed,  and  it 
was  added  :  "  Is  it  not  possible  that  we  bave  hère  that  more 
^^  elemental  form  of  matter  which,  ihough  not  seen  in  the  nebu- 
lœ,  is  liberated  by  the  intense  beat  of  the  solar  sphère,  and 
may  possibly  correspond  to  the  pçjmary  matter  conjectured 
by  Dumas,  having  an  équivalent  weight  one  fourth  that  of 
hydrogenî  Mention 'should  also  be  made  of  the  unknown 
élément  conjectured  by  Huggins  to  exist  in  some  nebulœ. 
This  conception  of  a  first  matter,  or  TJrstoff,  bas  also  been 
maintained  by  Hinrichs,  who  bas  put  forward  an  argument 
in  its  favor  from  a  considération  of  the  wave-lengths  in  the 
lines  of  the  spect»  of  various  éléments."  , 

*  Evolution  and  the  Spectroscope  :  Popnlar  Science  Monthly,  volume  IL, 
page  320.  * 


t  See  page  87  of  the  présent  volnme. 


.ffr j;v»>:  ■ 


PREFACE. 


XIX 


iiLly,  volume  IL, 


"It  is  curious  in  this  connection  to  note  that  Lavoisier 
auggested  that  hjdrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  with  beat  and 
light,  might  be  regarded  as  simpler  fornxs  of  matter  from 
Tvhich  ail  others  were  derived.     The  nebula),  whicb  we  con- 
ceive  as  condensing  into  suns  and  planets,  show  us  only  two 
of.  the  three  éléments  of  our  terrestrial  envelope,   which  is 
made  up  of  air  and  aqueous  vapor.     If  now  we  admit,  as  I 
am  disposed  to  do,  with  [Sir  William  R.  Grove  and]  W.  Mat- 
tieu  Williams  that  our  atmosphère  and  océan  are  not  simply 
terrestrial  but  cosmical,  and  are  a  portion  of  tKe  médium 
which,  in  an  attenuated   form,  fiUs  the  interstellâry  spaces, 
thèse  same  nabulœ  and  their  resulting  worlds  may  be  evolved 
by  a  process  of  ohemical  condensation  from  this  universal 
atmosphère,  to  which  tfiey  would  sustain  a  relation  somewhat 
analogous  to  that  of  clouds  and  rain  to  the  aqueous  vapor 
around  us.     This,  though  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  legitimate 
and  plausible  spéculation,  is  at  présent  nothingmore,  and  we 
may  never  advance  beyond  conjecture  as  to  the  relations  of 
the  varioùs  forma  of  so-called  elemental  matter,  and  to  the 
processes  which  govem  the  évolution  of  the  starry  sphères." 

The  Taconic  rocks  hâve  of  late  been  the  object  of  much 
study  on  the  part  of  the  author,  leading  him  to  conclude  that 
what  has  been  said  of  them  in  Essay  XIII.  Part  1,  and  in 
Essay  XV.  Part  3,  is  true  only  of  that  poièion  which  Emmons 
at  first  included  in  the  upper  part  of  his  Taconic  System  un- 
der  the  gênerai  name  of  the  Taconic  slates,  but  in  1855  jBçpa- 
rated  from  the  underlying  portions,  and  described  as  the 
Upper  Taconic  séries..  This  is  no  other  than  the  Québec 
group  of  Logan,  which  is  the  northward  prolongation  of  the 
Taconic  slates  from  eastem  New  York.  The  rocks  in  the 
Hudson  valley,  to  which  Mather,  in  his  Fourth  Annuftl  Report 
on  the  Oeo^ogy  of  New  York  (in  1840),  gjive  the  name  of  the 


r-n. 


?i&4iU^^vwia*.*A   fti^A-» 


*^  J^'-J-^ï^* 


1  1      -f  ' 


■  -     r-"[ 


XX 


PREFACE. 


Hudson-River  alates  or  the  Hudson  alategroup,  included  thèse 
Upper  Tacobiç  rocks,  together  with  portions  çf  strata  holding 
tlie  fauna  q(  the  upper  members  of  the  Champlain  division. 
The  strata  of  this  région,  and  of  its  extension  north  and 
south,  including  the  Western  border  of  the  whole  Atlantic 
belt,  from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  Alabama,  hâve,  as  19 
wcll  known,  a  gênerai  high  dip  to  the  eastward,  attended  with 
many  dialocations,  folds,  and  inversions;  as  a  resuit  of  which 
the  newer  sédiments  appear  to  paas  beneath  the  older  ones, 
and  oven  beneath  the  still  more  ancient  crystalline  rocks*f 
*the  belt,  giving  xise  to  some  of  the  most  perplèxiug  problems 
in  American  j^eology.  , 

The  faudti  of  the  Upper  Taconio  rocks,  including  the  forms 
found  at  Troy,  New  York,  at  Geôrgia,  Vemiont,  and  at  Phil- 
lipsbbrg,  Point  Levis,  and  Bic,  in  the  province  of  Québec, 
présents,  as  far  as  known,  nothi^  lower  than  tÛ  Menevian 
horizon,  "and  belongs  to  the  LoWer  and  Middle-  Cambrian  of 
Sedgwick.     The  quartzites  and  magnesian  limestones  around 
the  Adirondack  région,  and  in  the  geographically  similar  area 
of  the  Upper  Mississippi,  which  are  generally  included  under 
the  names  of  the  Potsdam  sandstone  and  the  Calciferous  sand- 
rock,  or  Lower  Magnesian  linlestone,  appear,  in  the  présent 
State  of  our  knowledge,  ^haye  been  deposited  during  the 
Upper  Taconic  perit^d.  .    \ 

The  whole  of  thèse  rocks  are  wanting  along  a  great  part  of 
the  uorthem  oiUcrop  of  the  Siluro-Cambrian  in  Canada,  where 
the  limestones  of  the  Trenton  group  riepose  uncouformably 
upon  crystalline  eozoic  (pre-Cambrian)  rocks,  aud  moreover 
appear  as  outliers  stiïï  farthap  north,  resting  upon  thèse.     Th^ 
Chazy  limestone,  a  formation  comparatively  limited  in  its^ 
distribution,  appeara  by  its  fauna  to  connect  the  Cambrian 
rocks  with  the  Siluro-Cambrian,  rep^resented  by  the  Trenton 


■y 


xiM^'^A^^^^^^^^^^^^'^j. 


£^"^i;. 


;ha  Meuevian 


^O*  PREFACE. 


XiXl 


limestone  and  the  suceeeding  Cincinnati  sériés,  which  includes 
the  Utica  slates  and  the  Loraine,  or  Pulaski  shales.  Theso, 
passing  from  Ontario  southeastwards,  along  the  west  aide  of 
the  Adirondaciks,  become  thinner,  and,,  açcording  to  Conrad  ~^ 

and  Vanuxem,  disappear  entirely  in  the  Mohawk  vallcy.  The 
Pulaski  shales  are  said  by  the  latter  to  be  underlaid  in  this  ré- 
gion bv  the  Frankfort  shales  and  sandstones  which,  oft^y  tha 
disappearance  of  the  Pnlaski  shales,  form  thp  surface-rock  east- 
ward  to  the  Hudson,  and  were  regarded  as  the  lower  portion 
^  the  Hudson-River  slate  group,  then  aupposed  to  overlie  the 
Tfenton  limestonea  According  to  the  later  déterminations 
of  Emmons  thèse  slates  are  Upper  Taconic,  and,  the  Trenton 
limestone  being  absent,  the  Loraine,  the  upper  member  of  the  ' 

Siluro-Cambrian,  is  found  in  outliers,  resting.  unconformably 
upon  thèse  Upper  Taconic  (Cambrian)  slates. 

The  Oneida  conglomerate  and  sandstone  (which  forms  the 
base  of  the  true  Silurian  in  New  York  and  in  Pennsylvania) 
resta  upon  the  Loraine  shales  near  Lake  Ontario;  but  where 

.  thèse  disappear,  to  the  southeast,  lies,  in  Oneida  County,  upon 
t)ie  Frankfort  slates.  If  thesè  latter  are  fèally  Cambrian,  the 
whole  of  the  SilunvCambrian  would  be  wanting  in  this  région. 
In  the  eroded  anticlinal  valleys  west  of  the  Susquehanna 
River,  where  thg  whole  of  the  Siluro-Cambrian  is  présent, 
the  passage  from  the  Upper  Cambrian  (Q^pinnati)  shales  into  \ 

the  Silurian  sandstones  is  graduai,,, anthère  is  no  strati-  ^" 

graphical  break,  although,  as  shoWn  by  Rogers,  such  an  inter- 
ruption occurs  between  thèse  same  sandstones  and  thtf  under- 
lying  (Frankfort)  slates  aloi^  the  northwest  border  of  the 

gi^at  wAppalachian  vâlley.      ^ 

The  Lower  Taconic  séries  ofEpamons,  embracing  in  ascend- 

ing  order  (1)  granular  quartz  ro(î}c,  (2)  the  Stockbridge  lime- 

Btone  with  îta  interstratified  and  Vverlying  micaceous  schists. 


i<  r 


-m 


\'kyi.1ù.h0/\^é>>J't!j.^^r^i.  Id'-. 


i 


m 


S-- 


■k'  et' 


xxu 


PREFACE. 


and  (3)  argillites,  including  roofing-slates,  constitutes  a  dis- 
tinct geological  horizon  of  rocks  essentially  crystalline,  having 
an  aggregate  thickness  of  aboiit  five  thousand  feet    Thèse  are 
found  resting  dlike  on  Laurentian,  Huronian,  and  lk(ontalban 
strata,  and  are  overlaid,  probably  unconformably,  by  ttiQ  Ca 
briau  (Upper  Taconic).     In  opposition  tb  this  view  of  éie 
of  tho  Lower  Taconic,  whioh  was  that  originally  put;  forwari 
by  Emmons,  it  was  maintained  by  H.  D.  Rogers  that  the  lime 
stones  of  the  séries  are  pf  the  âge  of  tho  Calciferous  and 
Chazy  ;  by  Mttther,  and  later  by  Dana,  that  they  are  Trenton  ; 
by  Adatms,  and  others,  that  they  are  either  Lower  Helderberg 
OE  Devohian  ;  ând  finally,  by  Logan,  that  they  are  the  Levis 
limestones  pf  the  Upper  Taconic,  —  in  ail  cases  modified  by 
so-called  metamord^k;  pgency. 

Of. thèse  four  l^reDoncilable  views,  each  one  in  its  tum  has 
been  plausjbly  dëfended  upon  the  ground  of  apparent  super- 
position to,  or  of -association  with,  fossiliferous  strata  of  vari- 
ous  âges,  in  some  one  or  more  localities.  AU  of  thèse  hypoth- 
èses are,  however,  in  the  author's  opinion,  equally  uutenable, 
und  the  true  position  ôf  thèse  limestones,  as  maintained  by 
Emmons,  is  believed  tài^  inferior  tp  the  Uppter  Taconic  or  to 
the  Potsdàm  aandstone.  They  are  apparentiy  identical  with 
the  gre»t  limestone  séries  which,  in  Has^^j|punty,  Ontario, 
underligs  ,ùnconfoM|ably  the  Trenton*jHJH|^#limesto; 
and  near  St.  John,%ew  Brunswick,  is^|MWSBP'Menev 
slates.  Whether  thèse  Lower  Taconiol^iMtbnes  and  slates, 
with  their  undéiiying  quartzites,  are  the  équivalents  of  the 
basai  beds^of  the  Ôàmbrian  in  Scandinavia  is  not  certain,  and 
ip  view  of  their  great  geological  importance  in  North  America, 
i^SPetos  p^»per,  while  referring  the  Upper  Taconic,  as  has 
PP^èàdy  ba^done,  to  the  Cambrian,  to  préserve  for  the  lower 
igroup  thi^^ginal  namé  of  Taconic  or,  bâtter,  Taconian. 


^itiM^^^ 


r  > 


/ 


PBEFAGE. 


xxiu 


^,  ^  *;î  The  rocks  of  thé  Taconian  seriea,  though  in  part  Jetrital, 
h^  isS»  ■**  alr^'MÎy  said,  essentially  crystalHne,  and  altliough  din- 
^•Çdffct  alike  ftom  the  Montalban,  Hurooian,  and  Laurentian 
séries,  Which  si^cceed  them  in  descending  order,  hâve  certain 
,  lithological  resemblaeces  with  eçch  of  thèse.     Mather,  whose 
views  yiere  adopted  withoqt  question  by  a  gre^t  number  of 
American  geologists,  supposed  ail  of  thèse  unlike  groups  of 
rocks  to  be  nothing  more  thdn  Càmbrian  and  Siluro-Cambrian 
strata,  constituting  thp  Champlajn  division  of  the  New  Yorit 
System.     Thèse,  mctuding  the  succession  from 'tlW-basé  of  the 
Potsdam  to  the  smnmit  of  the  Loraine,  were  supposed  to  hâve 
'•    been  modified  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  by  intrusive  rocks, 
and  by  unknown  agencies,  and  to  hâve  assumed,  in  différent 
locajities,  the  four  fomis  of  the  Ùpper  Taconic,  the  tïue  Ta- 
conian, the  Montalban  and  Huronian  schists,  and  the  gneis|MS, 
and  crystalline  limestones  of  the  Laurentian. 

To-day,  the  greater  part  of  this  extraordinary  hypothesis  is, 
by  most  geologi8t8,ll|iected  ;  and  it  is  seen  l^iat  the  disaimi- 
larities  jn  thèse  great  crystalline  séries  cannot  be  explained 
by  supposing  them  to  resuit  from  subséquent  and  unlike 
changes,  in  différent  areas,  of  one  and  the  same^wlcîystalline 
paleozoic  séries.  Thèse  lithological  différences,  as  exhibited 
in  the  Highlands  of  the  Hudson,  in  the  crystalline  rocks  of 
the  Green  Mountains  and  White  Mountains,  and  in  those  of 
the  Taconic  hills,  correspond  to^bur  great  séries  of  pre-Çanr- 
brian  rocks,  and  mark  as  many  successive  periods  in  eozôic 
time. 

As  we  pass  westward  beyond  the  influences  of  thé  great 
Appalachian  disturbanoes  whïch  hav'e  faulted,  folded,  and  in- 
verted  alike  thèse  eozoic  formations  and  the  succeeding  paleo* 
zoio  strata,  the'problem  of  the  relation  between  the  two 
becomes  much  lesa.complieated  and  moro  feadily  understood. 


.à 


k^       *jU^îi^ïlÉi*.r\i.     ï.,      ■^v-.i 


^^^::;T.^î?. 


•■'■■■) 


A>. 


XXIV 


PREFACE. 


In  the  great  area  south  and  west  of  Lake  Superior,  where  the 
Cambrian  formations  are  evérywhere  undisturbed  and  unal- 
tered,  it  is  clearly  and  unmistakably  seen,  as  Irving  bas  so 
well  shown,  that  the  Laurentian,  Huronian,  and  Montalban 
rocks  (there,  as  ia  the  east,  greatly  folded  and  contorted)  are 
far  older  than  they.  The  Taconian,  with  its  characteristio 
limestones,  does  not  appear  in  tbis  northwestem  région,  but 
we  find  in  the  same  geological  interval  the  great  volcanio 
séries  of  copper-j^earing  strata  which  is  displayed  in  the 
Keweenaw  peninsula.  Thèse  rocks,  successively  referred  by 
difierent  observers  to  the  mesozoic  period,  to  the  âge  of  the 
Potsdam,  and  to  the  so-called  Québec  group,  are  now  clearly 
shown  by  the  geological  survey  of  Wisconsin,  to  pass,  in  their 
south waStem  prolongation  through  that  state,  unconformably 
beneath  the  horizontal  fossiliferous  Lower  Cambrian  sand- 
stone,  which  is  in  part  made  up  of  their  ruins.  This  great 
metalliferous  séries,  which  the  author  has  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  Keweenian,  he  has  found  to  contain  in  its  conglom- 
érâtes the  gneisses  of  the  Laurentian,  the  petrosilexes,  green- 
stones,  and  chloritic  schists  of  the  Huronian,  and  the  charac- 
teristic  mica-schists  of  the  Montalban.'^ 

The  Taconian  rocks,  which  are  conspicuous  in  the  great 
Appalachian  valley  from  Vermont  to  Alabama,  are  character- 
'■  ized  by  many  lithological  peculiarities.  The  magnesian  lime- 
stones of  the  séries  sometimes  contain  serpentine  and  mica, 
often  finely  disserainated,  while  the  associated  schists  are 
sometimes  in  large  part  made  up  of  a  hydrous  mica.  Gamet, 
chlorite,  and  crystalline  oligist  and  magnetite  ores,  are  also 
found  abundantly  at  this  horizon,  and  the  whole  séries  of 
quartzites,  limestones,  and  interstratified  schists  constitutes  a 
group  Very  distinct  i^  its  lithological  characters  from  the 
older  crystalline  ^ups.     Thèse  Taconian  rocks  include  great 


i  A»»'- il    î^l.i«ài^' 


,'  j^  •t'Slk'iA.»i^ 


PBËFACE. 


XXV 


beds  both  of  carbonate  of  iron  and  pyrites,  and  from  the  oxy- 
dation of  the  one  and  the  other,  in  situ,  as  has  beeu  shown 
■  by  the  author,  hâve  been  derived  the  great  masses  of  brown 
hématite  ores  everywhere  found  along  the  outcrop  of  the 
séries.  The  clays  often  accompanying  thèse  ores  are  the  re- 
sults  of  the  decay  of  the  enclosi^g  crystalline  schists,  which, 
Uke  the  still  older  crystalline  strata  along  the  eastern  border 
of  the  Appalachifli^  Valley,  are  in  many  places  decomposed 
to  considérable  depths. 

The  direct  évidences  of  life  in  thèse  Taconian  rocks  are  the 
marks  of  some  organic  form  which  hâve  been  described  under 
the   name  of  Scolithus,  and   appear  to   be  common  to  the 
quartzites  and  the  limestones  ;  while  the  latter  contain,  more- 
over,  fragmenta  of  an  undescribed  linguloid  shell.     In  some 
few  localîties  the  existçùce,  among  areas  ôf  the  Taconian  lime- 
stone^'Of  strata  containing  recognized  paleozoio  forms  has  been 
noticed.     This  older  séries  was,  however,  overlaid  both  by 
Cambrian  and  Siluro-Cambrian  strata,  which  were  afterwards 
subjected  to  disturbances  completely  inverting  the  order  of 
thèse  latter,  and  involving  at  the  same  time  in  their  folds 
and  dislocations  underlying  strata  alike  of  Taconian,  Montal- 
ban,  Huroniau,  and  even  of  Laurentian  âge,  to  such  an  estent 
that  ail  of  thesê,  in  their  tum,  hâve,  as  we  hâve  seen,  been 
regarded  as  altered  paleozoio  strata.     Thus,  in  repeated  in- 
stances, Siluro-Cambrian  rocks  are  oferlaid  by  others  which 
are  clearly  Cambrian  sédiments,  while  thèse  latter  are  found 
to  pass.  beneath  the  crystalline  rocks  of  the  Atlantic  belt 
called  by  Logan  "  altered  Québec  group"  (Cambrian).     Thèse, 
however,  as  was  long  since  pointed  out  by  the  writer,  are  pre- 
Cambrian  rocks  of  Huronian  âge.     The  investigations  of  the 
geological  survey  of  Canada  within  the  last  two  y^Érs  hâve 
fiiUy  vindicated  thia  view,  as  it  was  aet  forth  Jn^  pagaa  276— 


^.if  L.,^, \^^.&t.-.^^...- . .  »      .5v 


ur^s    î-fc  ^e^t    ^uv-i    -»"  V    -*■ 


■^T>^«r<te   ; 


XXVI 


PREFACE. 


V 

and  408  of  the  présent  volume.  In  the  limestones  and  slates 
referred  above  to  the  Taconian,  which,  in  Madoc,  Ontario,  lie 
between  tl|B  Huronian  and  the  Trenton  (which  latter  resta 
upon  them  unconformably),  there  hâve  been  found  by  Daw- 
son,  besides  Scolithus-like  markings,  the  remains  of  Eozoon  nçt 
unlike  that  of  the  Lâurentiaa. 

The  Alps,  where  similar  geolpgical  accidents  to  those  of 
the  Atlantic  belt  in  North  America  involve  not  only  paleozoic 
but  mesozoio  and  even  cenozoio  strata,  hâve  been  the  objecjsdi 
of  similar  hypothèses  to  that  of  Mather,  and  the  crystalliije    - 
rocks  of  that  région  hâve  been,  in  tum,  assigaed  to  eveiy  oÉe^  " 
of  thèse  periods  (see  pages  334  -  346).    The  late  researches  of 
Gastaldi  and  others  hâve,  however,  shown  the  fallacy  of  thèse 
views,  and  established  a  complète  harmony  between  the  geol- 
ogy  of  the  Alps  and  that  of  our  Atlantic  and   Mississippi 
régions.    At  the  base,  according  to  Gastaldi,  is  a  great  séries 
of  gneisses,  often  granitoid  and  poi^hyroid,  associated  with' 
quartzites,  graphite,  and  crystalline  limestones,  the  whole  of 
which  is  referred  by  him  to  the  Laurentian.     A  second  séries 
of  great  thickness,  knovm  as  the  greenstone  or  pietri  verdi 
group,  consists  of  varieties  of  diabase  with  serpentine  and 
chloritic,  steatitic,  and  epidotio  strata,  associated  with  quartr 
zoso  and  oaloareous  sohists. 

Thèse  rocks,  which  are  widely  spread  in  northem  ItaJy, 
hâve  been  by  most  geologists  looked  upon  either  as  eruptive, 
or  as  contact-deposits  resulting  from  the  action  of  eruptive 
masses  upon  uncrystalline  sédiments,  and  from  their  supposed 
stratigraphioal  relations  hâve  been  assigned  to  very  différent 
geological  âges,  from  the  eocene  to  the  Silurian.  Gastaldi, 
however,  concludes  that  the  pietri  verdi  are  not  eruptive,  but 
indigenous,  and  constitute  a  well-defined  séries  of  jgreat  thick- 
ness, pre-paleozoio  in  âge,  resting  unconformably  upon  the 


'  i 


'A    'Ji 


J. 


a 


■ ^■,n'.>j,.,.,jix, .. .tr  .'  11, ..     !..  -1 .  «    ,      - ^       . 


•™1%  ! 


'jk' 


if 


FBEFACE. 


XXVl^ 


Laurentian,  and  referred  by  him  to  the  Huronian,  of  which  it 
bas  alltbe  cbaracters.  To  tbis  succeeds  anotber  great  group 
consisting  of  quartzitea  with  lime^tones  and  dolomites,  some- 
times  scbistose  and  micaceous,  including,  near  the  sumrait 
gypsum  and  anbydrite.  Tbese  also  bave,  in  turu,  been  as- 
sigued  to  varions  geological  borizons  from  tbe  tertiary  down- 
ward,  but,  according  to  tbe  same  observer,  are,  if  not  pre- 
paleozoic,  at  the  yery  base  of  tbe  paleozoic  séries.  Similar 
views  with  regard  to  tbe  crystalline  rocks  of  tbe  Alps  bave 
been  arrived  at  by  Favre,  and  by  Giordano  and  Gerlacb. 

The  Origin  of  Crystalline  Rocks  bas  been  discussed  at  some 
lengtb  in  tbis  volume,  wbere,  on  pages  285,  286,  tbe  two 
principal  hypothèses  proposed  to  account  for  the  miperalogical 
composition  of  such  rocks  are  concisely  stated.     The  first  of 
thèse  supposes  that  tbe  minerais  of  which  many  of  thèse 
rock«  ftre  composed  "  bave  resulted  from  an  altération  of  pre- 
^  viously  existing  minerais  of  plutonio  rocks,  often  very  unlike 
lu  composition  to  tbe  présent,  by  tbe  taking  away  of  certain 
éléments  and  the  addition  of  certain  others."     Tbis  change, 
which  in  the  individual  minerai  is  called  epigenesis  or  pseudo- 
niorpbism,    is  designated    metamorphism    or  metasomatosis 
wben  applied  to  rock-masses.     An  attempt  is  made  on  page 
295  to  give,  in  gênerai  terms,  tbe  views  of  those  who  maintain 
tbis  hypothesis  of  tbe  origin  of  the  crystalline  schists  ;  and 
the  extent  to  which  it  bas  been  carried  by  certain  of  its  advo- 
cates  is  fully  shown  on  pages  319,  320,  324,  325,  and  326. 

In  opposition  to  tbis  hypothesis,  which  supposes  that  the 
varions  drystallipe  silicated  rocks  bave  been  derived  from  plu- 
tonic  masses  by  epigenic  changes,  effected  through  aqueoua 
agencies,  15  that  maintained  by  the  autbor,  according  to  which 
the  crystalline  stratified  rocks  are  not  plutonic  but  neptunean^ 
"^  ^'^g'°'-^'°JL?ygP^JgJy^^,g^^       "ff  "teghanicaL  BfidimApti; 


j4A«'V&ii^'TiS»«tM<''2^  2/  «kU   -àj.U   ^    !. 


>i  -j^y 


■■  /(. 


XXVUl 


PEEFACE. 


coming  from  the  chemical  or  mechanical  disintegration  of 
more  ancient  rock-masses,  "were  originally  deposited  as,  for 
the  most  part,  chemically  forraed  sédiments  or  précipitâtes,  in 
which  the  subséquent  changes  hâve  been  simply  molecular,  or 
at  most  confined  to  reactions,  in  certain  cases,  between  the 
mingled  éléments  of  the  sédiments."    This  view  is  iUustrated 
atlength  on  pages  296-300,  where  it  is  applied  to  silicates 
such  as  serpentine,  talc,  chlorite,  hornblende,  pyroxene,  gar- 
net,   and  epidote,  aU  of  which  are  conceived  to  hâve  been 
"formed  by  à  crystallization  and  molecular  rearrangement  of 
silicates  genéi-ated  by  chemical  processes  at  the  earth's  sur- 
face."  The  formation  of  crystalline  feldspar  in  veins,  evidently 
of  aqueous  origin,  is  also  cited  as  throwing  light  on  the  genesis 
of  bedded  feldspathic  rocks,  and,  finaUy,  the  aqueo-igneous 
fusion  of  neptunean  crystalline  strata  is  supposed  to  give  rise 
to  plutonic  masses  (pages  285,  317). 

Although  the  hypothesis  of  the  plutonic  and  epigenic  or 
metasomatio  origin  of  crystalline  rocks  stiU  counts  many  dis- 
ciples, the  doctrine  of  their  neptunean  origin  bas  found  favor 
with  some  of  the  most  enlightened  students,  as  bas  been 
shown  on  pages  304,  305,  316,  and  317.     Prominent  among 
thèse  is  Delesse,  who,  as  we  bave  seen,  early  renounced  the 
plutonio  for  the  neptunean  theory  of  ciystalline  rocks.    He 
haa,  since  the  printing  of  the  first  édition  of  this  volume,  given 
further  expression  of  his  views  on  this  question  in  a  critical 
notice  of  the  Writings  of  the  plntonists.  Von  Laàaulx  and  Knop. 
According  to  Von.Lasaulx  ail  ciystalline  rocks  bave  been 
derived  from  the  primitive  crust  of  the  globe,  which  he  sup- 
poses to  *ave  been  of  a  granitio  character.     The  changes 
wrought  therein  hâve  consisted,  first,  in  the  mechanical  dis- 
intégration  of  portions,  and  their  conversion  into  sedimentary 
rocks,  and,  second,  in  "chemical  altérations  alike  of  thèse  and_ 


/ 


VS  'k       ifi-'    ^1        JA 


■•  A: 


»  -r*^  •i.-'^i  I  \    i\    jt-^ij 


5*©r.,î3î._.'jr:.M.. 


'fti 


PREFACK 


xxi± 


of  th©  primitive  igneous  rock.  In  this  way  granité  or  gneiss 
bas  been  converted,  by  the  loss  of  alkali,  successively  into 
mica-schists  and  argilïite,  while  other  altérations  are  supposed 
to  bave  given  rise  to  cbloritic  and  talcose  minerais.* 

Acoording  to  Knop  the  plutonio  rocks  tbemselves  bave 
originated  by  a  similar  process  from  volcariic  products.  Gran- 
ité is,  in  bis  view,  a  metasomatio  eruptive  rock,  derived  from 
a  tracbytic  lava,  while  gneiss  is  formed  from  the  détritus  of 
tracbyte  or  of  granité,  The  final  resuit  of  the  metasomatosis 
of  thèse  materials  (wbicb  is  supposed  to  be  eflTected  tbrough 
water,  at  great  depths,  under  beat  and  pressure)  is  a  mixture 
of  quartz  and  mica.  Doleritic  lavas  by  similar  transforma- 
tions giye  rise  to  the  various  greenstoues.  Knop  also  admits 
another  and  very  différent  origin  for  crystalline  schists.  The 
kaolin  resulting  from  the  superficial  décomposition  of  granitic 
rocks  may,  by  the  fixation  of  alkali,  be  SUccessively  converted 
into  mica  and  feldspar,  so  that  a  plastic  clay,  by  such  a  pro- 
cess, might  be  changed  first  into  argilïite,  then  into  mica- 
schist,  and  finally  into  a  gneiss.t  A  similar  hypothesis  bas 
been  maintained  by  otbers,  and  tbe  introduction  of  foreigij 
éléments  in  solution  has  been  conceived  to  play  an  important 
part  alike  in  the  altération  of  uncrystalline  sédiments  and  of 
plutonic  rocks. 

Thèse  latter  reactions  are  doubtless  possible  in  the  labora- 
tory»,  but  the  assumption  that  they,  or  the  metasomatio 
changes  imagined  by  Von  Lasaulx  and  Knop,  are  concemèd 
in  the  genesis  of  the  crystalline  rocks  is  a  gratuitous  hypothe- 
sis, meriting  the  epithet  of  "métamorphisme  à  l'outrance," 
given  by  Delesse.  In  opposition  to  the  views  of  metasoma- 
tosis, this  writer  asserts  that  "tbe  varied  characters  of  the 

'  PoggendorTs  Annalen,  vol.  167,  page  804. 
^AUfia  Jahrbuch fUr Minerak)gifi,  187^  pages SSSMdtffc  ^^— 


^âSs**uai.i-)'i.v3ùï 


A... 


ri- 


XXX 


PBEFACE. 


•P- 


crystalline  schists  are  not  due  to  their  having  passed  through 
a  greater  or  less  number  of  métamorphoses,  but,  on  the  con- 
trwy,  dépend  essentklly  upon  the  primitive  composition  of  ' 
the  sédiments  from  which  they  are  formed,  and  also  upon  the 
^Development  of  their  crystalline-  structure."     He*  then  pr(> 
ceeds,  in  accordance  with  the  author's  view,  to  consider  hovr, 
owing  to  the  dififerent  chemioal  composition  of  thèse  sédi- 
ments, there  hâve  been  formed,  in  one  case,  feldspathic  rocks, 
in  another  hornblende  and  pyroxene,  in  another  serpentine, 
tJSlc,   and  chlorite,   and  in  still  others  andalusite,  cyanite, 
staurolite,  and  micas. 

Von  Lasaulx,  frora  the .  microscopic  study  of  a  porphyritic 
protpgine  and  its  contiguous  taJcose  and  micaceous  schists, 
côncludes  that  thèse  hâve  resulted  from  an  altération,  in  place, 
of  portions  i)f  the  porpfeyry';  but  Delesse,  with  reaaon,  main- 
tains  an  original  difFerence  in  the  rocks  both  in  composition 
and  in  structure,  and  further  remarks  that  the  microscopic 
study  of  minerais  and  rocks,  while  rendering  important  ser- 
vices, "bas  greatljr  contributed  to  the  rise  of  geological  théo- 
ries which  appear  to  be  inadmissible,  particularly  as  regards 
metamorphism,  showing  how  much  reason  De  Saussure  had 
to  say  that  mountains  should  not  be  studied  with  microscopes." 
With  regard  to  the  hypothesis  of  th^  ^pigenic  or  pseudo- 
morphous  production  of  minerai  species,  jwhi(jfe  underli«js  the 
plutonists'  theory  of  metamorphosis  or  metasomatosis,  Delesse 
uses  thé  foUowing  langiiage  :  "Métamorphoses  the,  most  im- 
probable, and  in  any  case  the  least  proved,  hâve  been  admitted 
by  a  whole  school  of  minçralogists.     It  is  thus,  for  example, 
that  orthoclase  is  (by  them)  connected  on  the  one  hand  with 
a  volcanic  minerai,  leucite,  —  from  whicb  they  ^ould  dérive 
it,  — and  on  the  other  with  potash-mica,  supposed  to  be  formed 
from  the  orthoclase.     With  the  help  of  the  chemical  formulas 


u'*^i. 


-t    iv.  i 


■  ,f%âj'-^^i''^   '  L*ïi  ^    irfv't    #W   ï.>*>*îi  *-,  ^i'V.tti^  fi   I. 


jh         ^l*-   ^1 


■•*'i^^\i^ 


r-x 


■  r  '  '   \>  •;" 


>>i 


ing  passed  through 
s,  but,  on  the  con- 
ive  composition  of  ' 
,  and  also  upon  the 
e."     He  then  pro- 
if,  to  consider  how, 
^ion  of  thèse  sedi- 
I,  feldspathic  rocks, 
inother  serpentine, 
.ndalusite,  cyanite, 

y  of  a  porphyritic  • 
micaceous  schista, 
tlteration,  in  place, 
«rith  reaion,  maiu- 
oth  in  composition 
it  the  microscopic 
ng  important  ser- 
af  geological  theo- 
cularly  as  regards 
De  Saussure  had 
with  microscopes." 
ligenic  or  pseudo- 
liqh  underli^  the 
iomatosis,  Delesse 
ses  the,  most  im- 
ive  been  admitted 
ius,  for  example, 
be  one  hand  with 
hey  \t^ould  dérive 
osed  to  be  formed 
ihemical  formulas 


PREFACE. 


XXXI 


of  thèse  minerais  they  show  that  leucite  can  be'isuccessively 
transformed  into  analcime,  orthoclase,  and  kaolinj  and  finally 
into  a  potash-mica.  Although  the  change  of  so^e  of  thèse 
minerais  may  take  place  in  certain  points,  —  eslecially  the 
change  ôf  orthoclase  into  kaolin,  -  no  pne  h^  ever  yet 
observed  the  graduai  and  complète  séries  of  ail  tlese  trans- 
formations in  any  given  locality,  and  they  are  entiSely  hypo- 
theticaJ."*  The  reader  may  compare  the  above  citations  from 
Delesse  with  thelanguage  of  the  author  on  pages  ^7  and 
324-326  ofthis  volume.  î 

J.  D.  Dana,  who  in  1845,  1854,  and  1868,  gave  expression 
tothe^xtreme  views  of  the  plutonist  school  as  to  the  origin 
of  crystaUine  schists  by  pseudomoi^ihism,  which  hâve  been 
«ited  on  pages  319  and  320,  declared  in  1874  that  thèse  ex- 
tracts from  his  writings  "did  not  express  the  opinions  on 
metamorphism  which  he  had  held  for  the  past  twelve  years  »  • 
but  that  the  «  Manual  of  Geology,"  published  by  him  in  1863,' 
"  is  to  be  taken  as  a  correct  expression  of  its  author's  views  on 
this  question."  t    The  définitions  of  the  Manual  on  this  impo^ 
tant  matter,  which  hâve  aJready  been  noticed  on  page  321 
of  this  volume,  although  leaving  much  to  be  desired,  permit 
the  conclusion  that  its  author  has  abandoned  his  former 
opinions  on  metamorphism. 

T.  S.  H. 
Boston,  Febmaiy,  1878. 

•  ÏWI.  d«  la  Soc.  Géol.  de  France,  3me  série,  Vol.  HI.  ft).  154-160. 
t  Proc  Bost  Soc.  Nat  Hiat,  VoL  XVU.  p.  169  and  Vol.  XVIII.  p.  200. 


"^^'^x- 


Jh      ^tf-Vi  /4*srvèf'r^^'W,icW 


<J&U 


â'âfôisâijfcis  ^*t^. 


,.  f  . 


'iVT^^~^*^'- 


"^ 


&(%'  ^ 


"T*"?» '■??%■,•    .''*, 


'"If-V'  "" 


TABLE  OF  CONTEJSTTS. 


THEORY  OF  IGNEOUS  BOCKS  AND  V0LCAN0E8  (1868), 

The  chemistryofacooling  incandescent  globe  .       .       .       . 
The  primitive  océan  and  primitive  crystalline  rock       .        .   '    . 
Origln  of  ernptive  rocks;  views  of  Bunsen,  PhUllps,  and  Durochêr 

Softeningofcrystellinestratifled  rocks 

Poulett  Scrope  and  Scheerer  on  aqneo-igneous  fusion   *    .    ' 
Daubrëe  and  the  author  on  the  origin  of  minerai  sUicates 
Views  as  to  the  condition  of  the  earth's  interior 
Existence  of  a  solidanhydronsnuolensmaintained'   . 
IntervenUon  of  sedimentary  rocks  in  volcanlo  phenomena 
Origln  of  the  volatile  productsotvolcanoes   .       .       .       , 
Sir  J.  F.  W.  Herschel  on  the  cause  of  volcanic  action  *   . 
Its  relation  to  récent  sedimentary  deposlts     .        .       .        , 
Note  on  the  décomposition  of  crystalline  rocks  . 
Note  on  the  déposition  ofclays 


ON  SOME  POINTS  IN  CHEMICAL  GEOLOGY  (1869). 
Andent  and  modem  sea-waters  compared 


Origln  and  geologlcal  Importance  of  alkaline  ca^bomltes  ' 
Différent  relations  ofpotash  and  soda        . 

DeposlUofiron-oxide  as  évidences  oforganiclifo     "       * 
Depositsofalumina;  emery  and  bauxite;  theiroririn"   .    ' 
Supposed  aqueous  origin  of  baslc  and  acidic  emptivfrock» 

Theory  of  volcanic  and  plutonic  phenomena .       . 
NoteontheylewsofKefersteln.  *       ' 

Geologlcal  dlstribnUonofvdcanoea       .   '   "  ' 


in. 

.  THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  METAMORPHIC  ROCKS  (1868). 

Preftce;  objections  to  the  name  of  metamorphlo  rocks 

Ilïrï  "»'»««|»  between  the  âge  and  constitaâfin^ofx^taliine  .^ck." 


PAO! 
1 


8 

4 
6 
6 
7 
7 
8 
8 
0 
9 

10 

10 


11 
12 
13 
13 
13 
14 
16 
16 
16 
17 


18 
1» 
20 


ïÇfî  >H'   •Mwyumi'- 


fxxxiv  TABLE  OF  CONTENTa  , 

V  ^   ai 

Chemlstryofalkalinenatnralw^rs     •       •       *       '       ' ..     ^       '        „„ 

Relations  ofthesoiltopotMh-Balt»  and  phosphate»,.     ..       .        •  -     ^ 

Origlnof  insoluble  metalliCBulphlde»     .        •        '        •        •        *        *  ^  „» 

Deoxidation  of  metols,  Bulphut.  and  carbon  throjigh  végétation     ■■  .  ./■  23 

Twofoldoriginof  carbonate»  ofllme  and  magnesla-      ....  ^^ 

The  two  types  of  igneou.  rock»  ;  thelr  sedimentary  origin     ^^  -;  •     i* 

Eock-metamorphism  deilned  and  distingulshed  from  pseudonfcrphîsm  S4 

Relation  ofalkallnewateretocrystaUine  silicate»      .        •„-%;•  '     ^ 

Local  metamorphism  ;  vlew»  of  Daubrée  and  Naumann    „   •  ^)-        •  ^0 

Progressive  change  in  stllco-aluminou»  sedimenta     .        ■■^.^..     •    ,  '     ^ 

Chemical  relation»  of  certain  minerai  aUicate»       .       .      -^  >  ^  '    *  f  " 

Varioua  séries  ofcry»talline»tratlfled  rock»      .        •       1  ,-'    •   *  "     Z 

Laurentian,  Labrador,  Green  Mountain,  and  White  Mountain  sençs    .  80 

Thehypothoticalgraulticsubftratum;  granitlcveins       .        .        .  „•     ■»» 

Crystalline  rock»  pfEuropeaadprth  America  compared   •       '       •  »* 

.       IV.,    '/ 

THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  P^«^VAL  EARTH  (1867). 

Thespectroscopeandthenebularhypothe^'. 86 

Dissociation  defined;terre»trial  Chemical  eremeut»       •        •        •        ■  ^ 

Probable  existence  of  more  elementalformsofmatter  m  the  star»    .       .  87 

Chemical  and  physicalcon»titutionbfth0  8un       .       .       .        .       •  »ï 

Chemical  historyofthecoolingearth         .       .        •        ■        t       •        •  »» 

Probable  solidification  from  the  centre  .  ■     .       •       .       •       •„      •         »» 
Primitive  atmosphère  and  ocea»;  thehr  composition *" 

Their  action  on  the  primitive  crust        .        •        •        •        '  L    "'     '  .. 

Mutual  relation9ofcarbonioacid,clay,limestone,  and  searsalt       .       .     « 

Watersof  the  ancient  océan •       •  i     '       '4» 

Carbonicacidof  the  anclent  atmosphère    •       '       \      '       '       '       '     ^ 

Its  relations  to  life  and  to  climate  .        % 

Formation  ofgypsums  and  magnosianlimestone» • 

Secondary  and  aqueous  origin  of  granités ^^ 

Action  of  internai  heat;  volcanoes      .        .       •        l.u,.  ^«rinr    '  *     46 

Hopkias,  Pratt,  and  Sir  William  Thomson  on  tàe  earth's  inteript       .  « 

Contrpversiesoftheneptunisbiandplutonist»  .        .       .       •       f  • 

Appendix. 

...  46 

The  earth's  climate  in  former  âge»     .       '       "  ,.    '       \  xa 

Tyndall  on  the  relation  of  gases  and  vapors  to  radiant  heat  ...  « 

ïormer  prédominance  ofcarbonioacid  in  the  air      .        .        •        •        •  . 

Noteontheamountofcarbonioaoidnowflxedinhmestones       .       •  « 


V. 

THE  ORIGIN  OF  MOUNTAINS  (1861). 
-Hall  on  palffioznio  gedlment»  in  ea»tem  North  America^  . 


— 221U1  VH  wn*cov>*tv«»-w  BM^a».»»-»'-? --------  -^^_ — . „ — . 

Eastem  orighi  of  thèse  mechanlcal  Mdlmenti 


40 


-»- 


«kkbJ  I 


TABLE  OF  CONTANTS. 


.    ~> 

ai 

•            • 

.      22 

•               •              • 

23 

tation     »  ■ 

.^23 

•       •       • 

23 

.      24 
24' 

.      25 

26 
.      27 

28 

•           * 

.      2»  . 

itainseriçs    . 

80 

•       •        • 

.      88 

(1   .       ,       . 

84 

\BTH  (1867). 

•                •                • 

.      86 

•                ■                ■ 

87 

the  Btars    • 

.      87 

•        •       • 

87 

•        t        ' 

.      88 

•        •       • 

89 

•        •        • 

.      40 

.  "     • 

40 

}ear6i^t 

.      41 

41 

•       •       • 

.      42 

•        • 

42 

,       , 

.      48 

■        • 

43 

.       •       • 

.      44 

'Binterlo?:  : 

46 

•^  ■  j 

.     46, 

•       •       • 

.     46 

leat  . 

46 

,        « 

.     47 

atones 

47 

VaryingthickneMofpalœozologtrata  .  .  .  . 
Belatlonofmountainsto  sédimentation  .  .  ,  • 
Continental  as  opposed  to  local  élévation   . 

ViewsofBuffon.Montlosier,  andConstant-Prevosf  '    . 
Views  of  Humboldt,  Von  Buch,  and  Elle  de  Beaumont     . 
Lesley  on  the  topography  of  mountains  . 

Relations  ofmoantainstogynclinals  and  to  érosion  . 

Hall's  TiewB  of  tho  origin  of  mountains  . 

Relations  çfsnbsidence  to  foldings  ofstrata 

Ctondensatlon  conséquent  on  the  crystaUizing  of  sédiments 

The  hypothesis  of  a  solid  contracting  nucleus  maintained 

B«^ation  of  this  nucleus  to  water-impregnVted  sédiments 

The  Boftening  of  thèse  produces  lines  of  weakness  in  the  crust . 

Relation  of  this  process  to  corrugations  . 

RelaUons  of  volcanio  and  plutonlc  phénomène  to  sédimentation 


Yî. 

THE  PROBABLE  SE4T  OF  VOLCANIO  ACTION  (1869). 

Discussion  ofthe  views  ofHopkins  and  Scropo  on  volcanaes    .       . 
Views  of  Lemery  and  Breislak,  of  Davy  and  Daubeny 
Views  of  Keferstein  and  Sir  J.  F.  W.  Herschel  .        .  ' .      '        ' 

Exposition  of  the  author'sTiew      ."       .  ... 

DIsintegration  of  the  primitive  crust  . 

Hopkinsonjntemalheatanditsincreaseindes^ending    '   .    *       ' 

?h^IiZ  ï!!.*'^*"*""  "f  •>«"*  "«d  Pr««««™  to  fusion  and  solution   .    * 
Ohemical  différences  ia  eruptive  rocks  .... 


4  Appekdix. 

Geographical  distribution  of  modem  volcanoes  .       . 
Distribution  of  ancient  erupteve  rocks;  their  geological  relations 


XXXV 

;  60 
60 

.  62 
62 

.  62 
52 

.       62 

.      65  . 

56 
.      67 

57 
•      67   , 

67 
.     68 


69 
62 
62 
63 
63 
64 
66 
66 


68 
69 


Y     VIL 

ON  SOME  POINTS  p[  DYNAMICAL  GEOLOGY  (1868). 

LeConteonthereconiitmctionofgeolo^caltheoTy   ....  fO 

Hisy,ewscomparedwlththo8eoftheanthor        ....  n 

VlL\  !r^»^  •"""ntoJ'"'  ;  the  criticisms  of  Dana,  Whitney,  and  LeConte  73 

views  ofHall  and  the  anthormisnnderstood         ...  78 

LeConte'stheoryof  mountains  considered  '     '  74 

Continental  élévation  and  érosion;  Montlosier  and  jûkes'   .■.".'  74 

Hall  on  some  North  American  mountains  .  75 

Origin  and  structure  of  the  Appalachians      .  75 

Their  ciystallinestratanotpalœozoic  but  eozio 75 

Evidences  of  an  eastem  pre  palsBozoic  continent U 

^■!Si^:zif^ù^'^-^''k'}^--L-  :  •  •  ■ B_ 

**■■•••  76 


y  . 


y 


àiitii 


^     A«EÎlii.V   ^^'^      A     1l-«'V<ï'i', 


■^'^'■/,""!»T»f*7^"^T-?y 


Al. 


ZXXVl 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTa 


\ 


Soarceof  heat  inplntonio  phenoniiena      .       .       .       .       .        .       .     TT 

The  notion  of  il»  ohemicalort^ln  untenabre 77 

Henry  Wurtz  on  a  mechonical  source  of  heat  .  .  >  .  -  ^  .  .78 
Expérimenta  and  conclusions, ofMaUêt.  ./....  78 
HlBTiewBOn.theoriginof  voloanloproducts     ......     79 


ON  LIME8T0NES,  DOLOMITES,  AND  GYPSUMS  (1868-1866). 

Introductory  note;  letter  to  Elie  de  Beaumont 

Cordier's  views  of  the  origan- oflimestones  and  dolomites 

Their  identity  with  those  of  the  author 

Chemistry  of  evaporating  lakes  and  sea-basins      . 

Allcaline  waters  of  rivera  and  springs 

Séparation  of  lime-^lts  fh>m'Bea-water;  gypsum  and  rock-«alt 
Origin  ofsulphuretted  hydrogen  and  native  sulphur 
Origin  of  depositsof  magnesianlimestones    .... 
Their  déposition  necessM^ly  InMàoIated  basins  .       .      - . 
Hall  on  the  organic  remains  linnagnesian  llmestones    . 

DepositS'Of  pure  carbonate  of  lime    ' 

Génération  of  dolomite;  its  crystallization"    .... 

Note  on  chemically  deposited  sllicQi^ 

Conclusions  as  to  the  chemistry  of  gypsum  and  dolomite 
Goùditions  of  température  for  the  production  of  dolomite  . 
Relative  solubilities^of  gjrpsnm  and  magnesian  bicarbonate 
Influence  of  carbonic  acid  o)i  the  formation  of  gypnum     .        . 
Geographical  and  cllmatic  conditions  for  the  production  of  dolomite 
Becent  conclusions  of  Bamsay  as  to  magnesicm  limestones 


80 
81 


84 
86 
87 
88 
88 
88 
89 
89 
«9 
90 
91 
91 
91 
91 
92 


.  .  IX. 

THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  NATURAL  WATERS, 

Pabt  I.  —  Gemeral  Pbincipuis. 
^tmospheric  waters  and  the  resuit  of  vegetable  decay  . 
Action  of  waters  on  the  soil;  researches  of  Wày  and  Voelcker 
Eichhom  on  the  replacemeiit  of  protoxide  bases  in  silicates  . 
Possible  relations  of  saline  watereto  the  soil      .       .       .       . 
Relations  of  organio  matters  to  oxides  of  iron  and  manganèse 

Solution  and  déposition  of  alumina 

Origin  of  snlphnretted  hydrogen  and  snlphurets   .       .^      . 
Décomposition  of  silicates;  BtudiesofEbelmann      . 
Kaolinization  offeldspars  anU  other  minerais 
Belation  of  soda  and  potash  salts  to  sédiments  .... 
Carbonic  acid  and  water  as  agents  in  decomposing  rocks     . 
Marine  salts  in  solution  in  sedimentary  strata  .... 
Porousnaturebfsandstones  and  dolomites    .  "     . 
Galculations  as  to  the  volume  of  waters  held  in  rocky  strata    . 
JSolid  salts  and  bittero»  from  sea-wat«c  in  therocfa      ,       . 


04 

96 

96 

97 

98 

98 

99 

100 

101 

101 

102 

108 

108 

104 


:  ^;^.,;;^'^  A  \.  .._^. 


M' 


"Y*^  " 


• 

.       .     77 

•              • 

77 

s 

.       .     78 

•            » 

78 

• 

.       .     79 

3  (1868- 

-1866). 

•      ••• 

.  .  80 

a                 • 

81 

• 

.     82 

,                  • 

88 

, 

.     84 

sait    . 

86 

,              , 

.     87 

•              • 

88 

,              , 

.     88 

•              • 

88 

,              , 

.     89 

•              • 

89 

•              « 

.  .     «9 

.                 a 

sib 

•                 m 

.     91 

91 

a                 a 

.     91 

lolomite 

91 

""•       . 

.     92 

Cjao" 

•        • 

• 

H' 

er 

96 

•              • 

• 

90 

97 

e 

a 

98 

'        , 

98 

•              • 

• 

99 

100 

•              • 

• 

101 

101 

•              ■ 

• 

102 

108 

•              • 

• 

108 

104 

« 1   ■■■. 

-t^ 

^m 

TABLE  OF  CONTEirre. 

Action of blosrbonate of  aodaon oahuuwotu ând  magnealan  salts 

OriginoftnlphatetlniMturBl  waters 

Indifférence  pfgypsutn  solutions  to  dolomite     .... 
Décomposition  ofgjrpsum  by  hydrpns  magneslan  carbonate 
Résulta  ofthe  graduai  évapcratloBofsea-water 

Composition  oftheahoientseas 

Séparation  of  the  lime  salta  from  sea-water        .     < . 
Décomposition  of  snlphate  of  magnesia  by  bicarbonate  of  lime    . 

Twofold  origin  of  gypsnm  ..." 

Twofold  origin  of  magnesian  carbonate 

Sulphurlo  and  hydrocliloriô  acid  in  waters       .        .      -. 
Carbonic  acid  in  waters .        .        .        ... 

Ammonla  and  nitrogen  in  rocks  and  waters     .       .       :       . 
Classification  of  natural  waters      ... 


XXXYU 


PabtII — AnALTus  or  VAiaona  Nattoal  Watkbb. 

Waters  oftbefintclass  or  bitter  salines;  analyses    . 

Tbeirresemblancetobittems;  absence  ofsulphates     .        .        .    * 

Prédominance  ofchlorides  of  calcium  and  magnésium 

Probable  constitution  of  the  Cambriaiiooean        ...,.' 

Brinesofancientsaliferonsdeposits  . 

Note  on.  analyses  of  saline  waters 

Silicate  of  magnesia  ;  Its  formation  aSd  Chemical  relations    '    .    "    . 

Waters  of  the  second  and  third  ckuses;  analyses  . 

Waters  ofthefourthclass  or  alkallne  waters;  analyse»    .   *    .   '   . 

Waters  of  the  Ottawa  Slver;  analysls 

Variations  In  the  composition  of  minera]  springs  .... 
Comparative  analyses  offheCaledonla  waters  ....  * 
Sulphuric-acid  springs  of  New  York  and  Ontario      .        .        .   '    . 

Nentralsttlphated  waters;  their  sources 

Sulphateofmagnesia  in  waters         .   '    . 


PABT  m ChB^ICAL  AHD   GsOLOOIçili  COMSroERATIONS. 

Salts  ofthe  alkallne  metals  in  natural,  waters  '     .       .       .       . 
Salts  of  calcium  and  magnésium;  relations  of  chlorides  and  carbonates 
BesultH  of  evaporatlon;  déposition  of  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia 
SolubUity  of  carbonate  and  bicarbonate  of  lime 
Snpersaturated  solutions  of  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia        .       . 
Salts  ofbarium  and  strontium  in  waters    .... 
Iron,  manganèse,  alumhia,  and  phosphates  in  waters    . 
Bromide»  and  iodidês  ta  waters 

Belationsof  chlorides  and  lodidestoearthy  minerais    .       . 

Sulphates  in  natural  waters  ;  thefr  fréquent  absence 

Soluble  sulpbides  in  natural  waters       .       . 

Borates;  waters  of  a  borax-lake        .       .       .    '   .    '   . 

Carbonates;  studies  of  the  Caledonia  waters  . 

Waters  with  a  deficiencyof  carbonic  acid     *   .       .    '   . 

Silicà;  its  amount  in  varions  waters      .       .       .       . 

KlicateB  of iûne  aiMftoagjaèsia  deposited  from  waters ^7^ 


106 
106 
106 
107 
107 
108 
100 
100 
110 
110 
111 

lia 

118 
118 


116 
117 
118 
110 
110 
120 
132 
128 
126 
126 
127 
129 
180 

isi 

184 


186 

187 
■'188 

189 

140 

141 

142 

143- 

148 

U*- 

146 

146 

147 

149 
46ft= 


•Kj 


161 


V  '   .^  V  J^t   ■" 


%d^^Jjà^ i.t^-'fà^ri*  4*  «M^i)U\.-v  '^&,^      J$ 


XXXVUl 


TABLE  OF  œîÏTENTS. 


''■»■ 


Organiomatters  in:water;  their  nature  and  origin         ....  162 

Geological  relations  ôf  minerai  waters 168 

Palseozoic  forfnations  of  the  St.  Lttwrence  basin 164 

Belations  of  minerai  waters  to  the  varions  formations        ....  166 

Contignity  of  dissimllar  minerai  springs 167 

Températures  of  the  minerai  waters  of  Canada 167 

^^{esultsoftheevaporationof  thèse  waters 168 

SOPPUIMEIIT. 

Waters  with  a  prédominance  ofchloride  of  calcium  .        .        .        .        .  158 

Waters  with  Bolnble  Bolphides;  mode  of  analysis 159 

Afpenduc. 

On  the  porosityof  rocks  and  its  significance 164 

Mode  of  determining  the  density  and  porosity  of  rocks  ....  166 

Tableof  the  density  and  porosityof  Tarions  rocks 166 


ON  PETROLEUM,  ASPHALT,  PYROSCHISTS,  AND  COAL. 


(xeological  relations  of  petroleum 

Origin  and  source  of  petrcdeum 

The  oil-bearing  limestoneof  Chicago;  its  analysis     . 
Large  aiBOIPt  of  petroleum  contained  in  the  limestone  . 
Bitumens;  ^eir  analyses  and  chemical  composition . 
Wall  on  theA>itumen8  of  Trinidad  and  Venezuela  .       >        . 
Conversion  oforganic  matters  into  coals  and  bitnmen 
Pyroschists  or  bituminous  shales;  their  natare  defined 

Their  geological  and  chemical  relations 

Chemical  similarity  of  animal  and  vegetalsle  tissues 

Note  on  the  constitution  and  artificial  production  of  albominoids 

Dawson  on  the  origin  of  coal  .        .       ' 

Comparative  analyses  of  epidermal  tissues         .... 
On  the  gascons  hydrocarbrâis  found  in  nature       ... 


16» 

170  , 

172 

17i 

176 

176 

177 

177 

178 

170 

180 

181 

181 

182 


XI. 

ON  GRANITES  AND  GRANITIC  VEIN-STONES  (1871-1872). 

Granité  and  its  varieties  defined        .       .       .       •  ..     •       •       •       •    184 

The  relations  ofgraniteto  gneiss 186 

Stratiform  structure  in  varions  empted  rocks 186 

Feldspar-porphyries;  theifcbaracters  and  distribution         .       .        .        187 

Gr|»nitoid  gneissesof  New  Englaod;  tme  granités 188 

Graniticvein-stones;  théories  as  to  their  origin 180 

Views  of  Scheerer,  Scrope,  and  Elle  de  Beaumont     .        .        :       .        .180 
The  concretionary  origin  ofgraniticveins      ......        102 

Oranitic  vein-stones  of  the  White  Mountain  rocks  described     •       .       .104 
^rtwTf  btmaëd  strnctnreî  dirturfaance  of  flrt  rt»te  by  vetnt-i 1       i     ^^^ 


!    > 


TABLE  OF  CÎONTENTS.  ^;sxxix 

Evidences  ofthe  progressive  formation  ofsnchveins     ~.       .       .       .198 

Rare  minerais  in  thegranitio  vein-stonesof  New  England    .        .        .  200 

Géodes  in  granités  in  New  Brunswick  and  Italy 201 

Granitic  veins  distingnished  from  dikes 202 

Vblger  and  Foumet  on  thefiUingof  granité  veins 202 

Becent  ftge  of  some  concretionary  veins 203 

Noteonthesalt-wellsofGoderich  in  Ontario     ...■"...  204 

On  the  conditions  of  the  crystallization  of  quartz 205 

On  the  emerald-bearing  veins  of  New  Grenada          .....  206 

Récent  production  ofcrystalline  zeolites 206 

The  Laurentian  séries;  itslithologicalcharacters      .        .       .    <   .        .  208 

Vein-stones  in  the  Lanrentian  rocks       , 208 

Thèse  vein-stortes  compared  with  those  of  Scaiidinavia     .       .       .      ^  209 

Minerais  of  the  Laurentian  vein-stones   .        .        .        .        .        .       .  210 

Note  on  the  occurrence  ofleucite 210 

The  concretionary  character  of  thèse  vein-stones  shown       .        .        .  211 

Incrustation  and  skeleton-orystals  described      .  ' 211 

Crystals  with  rounded  angles;  theirsignificance  .....  212 

Feldspathic  veins  of  the  Laurentian  rocks 214 

Complex  nature  of  the  Laurentian  vein-stones 216 

Vein-stones  with  apatit^  and  with  graphite 216 

Paragenesis  of  their  minerai  species 216 

Concretionary  copper-bearing  veins  of  the  Blue  Ridge       ....  217 

Supposederuptiveorigin  ofcrystalline  limestones        ....  218 


XII. 

THE  ORIGIN  OF  METALLIFEROUS  DEPOSITS, 
Preliminary  statement  of  the  theory  of  ore-deposits  . 
DUtribution  and  diffusion  of  the  chemical  éléments 
Séparation  and  concentration  of  certain  éléments 
Note  on  the  solvent  powers  of  water 
The  terrestrial  circnlation  compared  with  that  of  animais 
Hlstory  of  the  difftasion  and  concentration  of  phosphates 
Potash  and  iodine;  their  élimination  from  sea-water 
Intervention  of  organic  life  in  ail  th^se  processes  . 
History  of  the  diffusion  and  the  concentration  of  Iron 
Relation  of  iron-oxides  to  ancient  végétation  . 
Formation  of  iron-pyrltes  and  other  sulphides  . 
DiSïision  of  oopper,  silver,  and  lead  in  the  océan  . 
Réduction  of  copper  from  its  solutions       .       .       , 
Ore-deposits  in  beds  and  in  fissures        .... 
The  processof  déposition  in  veins       ..... 
Unifonnity  of  opérations  in  nature        .... 


Appbndix. 
Sonstadt  on  the  iodine  in  sea-water    . 
rgï*E^fai  tlie  oe«u»  ;  Sotistadt  and  ^nry  Wnrte 


220 
221 
222 
228 
224 
226 
226 
226 
227 
229 
280 
281 
282 
238 
284 
286 


337 


Tsr 


lAl   l'  ..-*,  i!,AiSl^,'»V4J^>.'»<S&«4t'™«''.--M*--'l''4f'll^  J»"»'!*^ 


■  .1'  ' .'-  *t 


TABLB  OP  CONTENTS. 


XIII. 

THE  GEOGNOSY  OP  THE  APPAEACHIAN8  AND  THE  ORIGIN  OP 

CRY8TALL1NE  BOCKS. 
The  relations  ofgwlogytothe  sciences     .... 

Part  L  —Thb  Gxoqitost  of  ihb  Appalachiak  System 
HistoryoftheAppalachianmonntain  System       .       .       . 
Eaton  on  the  classification  of  rock-formations   . 
Jackson  and  Rogen  on  the  rocks  of  New  England    '  .    *  . 
The  Adirondack  or  Laurentide  séries;  Laurentian    . 
The  Green  Mountain  séries;  Huronian  . 
The  White  Mountain  séries;  Montalban    . 

RogersfciWheoiystallIne  rocks  ofPennsylvania    .   *  .   *  . 
His  hypozolc  and  asolo  séries  probably  identical      .       .   *• 

CrystaUine  rocks  of  New  York  and  New  England 
Crjrstalline  rocks  of  Virginia,  the  Caroltoas,  and  Tennessee  '    . 
Emmons  on  the  crystalline  rocks  of  western  New  England 
Note  on  the  decayof  thèse  rocks  to  the  Southwest     .       .è, 
The  Taconio  rocks  of  Emmons  distlnguished  &om  the  primary 
The  Taconic  System  described  and  deflned       .... 
Views  of  Mather  and  Rogers  on  the  Taconic  rocks        .'.'    ' 
Rogers  and  Safford  on  the  primai  rocks  of  Virginia  and  Tennessee 
Relations  of  the  Taconic  to  the  Champlain  division 
The  organic  remahisof  the  Taconic  rocks  . 
The  rocks  of  the  so-called  Québec  group 

The  Red  sandHwkof  western  Vermont     . 

Lower  palsBozoic  rocks  of  Ubrador  and  Newforàdla^d 

Lower  paJawzoic  looks  in  the  Champlain  and  Mississippi  vaJleys 

Note  on  the  paléosoic  formations  In  the  Rocky  Mountains"» 

Stratlgraphical  breaks  In  the  lower  palœozoic  séries . 

ContinuaUonof  the  Taconic  controversy       .       .       .    *  .    * 

The  Upper  and  Lower  PotsdamofBlIlings       .       .       .   ' 

Lower  palaoEolc  rocks  of  Europe 

Identlty  of  Taconio  with  Lower  and  Middle  Cambrian      .  ' 
The  Huronian  or  Urtchlefer  distinct  from  Cambrian     .       . 
Crystalline  schIstsofAnglesea  and  the  RWne  . 
CrystaUine  rocks  of  the  Scotch  Highlands     . 
Comparative  studiesof  crystalline  formations  ..." 
Ciystalline  schUts  of  Ukes  Hnron  and  Superior  .       .       . 
The  crystalline  schisU  of  th»  Appalachlans,  pre-Cambrlan 
w^ner  on  the  Eocoic  formations  of  North  America     .       . 
HIstoryof  the  Norlan  or  Labrador  rocks    .... 
Relations  ofthe  varions  crystalline  formations      .       .    ' 
Hitchcock  on  the  geologyoftheWhIte  Mountain»    .       .       . 

Pari  IL  — Tri  Oriow  or  Cétwaiximb  Rock». 

MIneralogyof  the  two  classes  of  crystalline  rocks         .       .       . 
J^eories  of  theMare«<tfarttpttT»TO8fc»    . — ^     ^      .  — ^= 


.  240 

241 

.  241 
242 

.  248 
248 
244 
245 
247 
248 
249 
260 
260 
261 
262 
264 
256 
256 
267 
259 
260 
261 

261 

262 

268 

264 

266 

266 

268 

269 

270 

«71 

272 

274 

276 

277 

279 

281 

282 


SM 


H 


-wr 


■^'-i^-^, 


■p  '>  â""^^'^ 


I 


ŒE  DRIGIN  OP 


240 


.  ■  241 

• 

.  241 

242 

. 

.  248 

248 

. 

.  244 

246 

^ 

.  247 

248 

. 

.  240 

260 

. 

.  260 

7    ' 

261 

• 

.  262 

264 

tssee 

.  266 

266    («^ 

• 

.  267 

269 

. 

.  260 

261 

ys 

.  261 

262 

.  268 

264 

.  266 

266 

.  268 

260 

.  270 

-    271 

.  272 

.   274 

.  276 

.   277 

.  279 

281 

.  282 

C8. 

• 

.   S88 

TJT 


TABLE  OP  CONTENTS,  ^li 

Mec^ical  dtelntegratlon  and  ««ompogition  of  rock. 
Two  hypothèse*  to  explaln  thelr  oriirin  .  *       '       "       '  |     •   286 

^ZZÎ'^'^^'''^'^'^^^'^  ...  290 

DelesgeandNaumaimonpseudomorphfam  '       "       '       '291 

Supposedplutonicorlglnofcrygtallinestratifledi^ks'        "        '        •  292 

Views  of  Naumaim  and  of  Macfarhuie  on  priSm^k, ^^* 

Hypothesisoftheaqueoiworiginofcrvgtidlinrrlt  '     -^       '  294 

Génération  of  silicates  in  c^JSjKiïLr''        '       '       '       •  296 

Aqneons  déposition  offeldspathicnUnemls  29'" 

AllegedpatooïoicageofmanyciystaUineschisi» ^98 

The  antoor's  View  oftheirorigindeflned  '       •       •       •  299 

*Arlyviewsoftheaqneou8orieinofcrv8t»nmn*-^u'       "        '       •        •  800 

Evidences  ofIifeatàetin.eof?herrd:SoT^'  '  '  •  ««l 
Evidences  of  life  afforded  by  meteorio  sZes      '•••••    801 

DiscoveiyoftheEozoonCanadense  *  '  '  •  •  802 
Silicates  injectingthis  and  varions  other  oiïani^m»  '  '  "  '  .  •  802 
Observations  ofGiimbel.HoflFnu.nn,  and  dTsI  '  '  •  •  808 
CrednerandGUnibeIontheori<rin<6fci^stelH^  J.  '  "  '  -808 
BtimbelondiagenesisandepigSïsis^^"'*'^'''**''  •  •  •  804 
Note  containing  the  views  of  Giimbel  m  tùs.     ' 806 

Noteonthecrystallineaggrep^Znoi^iT'^^r  '       •       •        806 

Conditions  ofearlytim^Œ/dJi^^'^U^^^^^^  •       •       .    806 

The  origm  and  formation  ofdolomitJr*^ 806 

Muenceofoarbonicaoid  on  the  production  nfHM   '  *    "       '       *  •    «^ 
Supposcd  generatloi^f  dolomite  byTnZL.»r«^.    •       •       .       808 

Two  classes  of  doloX,  their  origln,  ^^  ^'"^^''         '  '   808 

BelationsofonecUissof  thèse  togypsnm  and  ««k-salt'       *       "       '       «« 
Former  climateofeasteniNorth  America  *       '       '        •    810      ■ 

Magneaian  silicates  ofSyracuse,  New  York *" 

Supposedoqjaniooriginoflimestones    .  «*<> 

Their  tme  relation  to  oiganic  life  811 

Jelationsof  phosphates  toorganisms'  .    ' »» 

PhosphatlcnatureofLingula,Orbioula,Connlari.Letc*       *       '       '        811 
BelatlonsofalUcatooimmlcllfe      "^^ '^'""*"»' «*<=•    •       •       .       .812 

812 

n  ApPKHDIX. 

KcplytoMr.Dana'sbritlctan»   . 

3^Z!îlT^*.''*™"'"°*»"°"<>'»p«''^«ta;ed  ' .  '  "  •  •  ;;; 

WarringtonSmyth's  opinion  ofepigenMJs  '       •       •       •       818 

DeleMeontheemptiveorigfnofiil^ntine  '       '       '       '       lit 

HesnbseqnenUyadopts  the  View  ofitsaaueoniort-rfn      "       '       *       *    "" 
Arevolnttoaia tho theorv of .,y. JÎ^S.        *^  '       •••"'- 

^=8^^'.  View,  explalnS  tnd^Si  ^  * »" 

818 


£  jrf'^y ,'  Lj«sil 


ii4*;a.''éîA...^^ '.i:,;.A-  :     v> 


Vf'-^r 


xlii 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Dana's  tijaclvifigg  as  to  psendomorphism     .       .       .       .^     . 

Hd  affirms  the  doctrine  ofepigenic  metamoiphism 

The  old  doctrine  ofdiagenesiB  explained  and  defended 

The  Tiews  of  Nanmann  examined  .        .        .        . 

Varions  illustrations  ofthe  doctrine  of  transmutation 

King  and  Rowney  on  the  supposed  transformations  of  serpentine 

Genth  on  the  supposed  altérations  of  corundum         . 

Dana  and  Emmons  on  the  Taconic  rocks 

On  the  relations  of  the  pr&<}ambrian  sd^ists     .       .       .       . 


81ft 
820 
821 
822 
^24 
825 
826 
826 
827 


XIV. 

THE  GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPS. 

The  researches  of  Alphonse  Favre 828 

The  crj'stalline  rocks  of  Mont  Blano 829 

The  uncrystalline  rocks  around  it 881 

Association  ofcarboniferous  and  liassic  fossils       .        .        .        .        .  882 

Difficulties  presented  by  folded  and  inverted  strata 884 

Sismonda  on  the  antbracitic  System  of  the  Alps    .       -.       • ,      <       .  884 

Section  presented  by  the  Mont  Genis  Tunnel 886 

Age  of  the  crystalline  schistg  with  anhydrites        .        .        .        .        ,  886 

Examples  of  invertçd  strata  in  the  Alps 887 

On  the  supposed  récent  âge  of  the  crystalline  schists     ....  898 

The  recomposed  crystalline  rocks  of  the  Alps 889 

The  true  crystalline  schists  ofgreatantiqnity        .        .        .        .        .  841 

Littleor  no  évidence  ofmetamorphism  in  the  Alps    .        .       .        •     i  •  842 

The  fan-like  structure  of  the  Alps  explained 848 

Grand  section  across  Chamonix  and  Mont  Blano 848 

Geologicolhistoryof  Mont  Blano .       .  844 

Appendix.  \ 

Antiqnity  of  the  crystalline  schists  of  Mont  Genis 847 

Favre  on  the  originof  crystalline  schists- 847 

De  Beaumont  and  Pillet  on  the  rocks  of  Mont  Cenis  Tunnel      .        .'     .  848' 

•         XV.  ^    ' 

HISTORY  OF  THE  NAMES  CAMBRIAN  AND  SILURIAN  IN  GEOLOGY. 

Part  L  —  Siutbiah  <un>  Uffeb  Gaxbrian  in  Great  BsiTAiir. 

The  Graywacke  formation  of  the  oldergeologists 860 

EarlystudiesofSedgwiokinNorth  Wales 860 

Efirly  researches  of  Mnrchlson  in  Wales        .       .        .       .       .       .  861 

Cambrian  as  flrst  deflned  by  Sedgwick      .        .        .       .        .        .       .  862 

Silurinn  as  flrst  deflned  by  Mnrchisoft 868 

Examinationofthe  Berwynsby  Mnrchison  and  Sedgwiok       .       .       .  864 

Identity  of  Gambrian  and  Lower  Silnrian  foasils    .       .       .       .       .  866     ' 


/• 


.'...y  .  ' 


l^ 


TABLE  OP  CONTENTS. 

Publication  of  Mnrchison's  Silprian  System 

Difficulty  of  distinguishing  between  Oambriaû  and  Silurian 

Se.dgwiclc'8  views  and  position  miarepresented 

Lrrore  ofMurchison's  sections  exposed  . 

His  Silurian  system  based  upon  a  séries  of  mistakês  .    ' 

Sedgwick's  proposed  compromise  in  nomenclature 

Unauthonzed  altération  of  Sedgwick's  geological  map 

Fmtiier  history  of  Sedgwick's  wrongs    .  ^      * 


PaktII—Middle  and  Lowee  Cambrian. 
Ancient  fossillferons  rocks  of  Scandinavia 

The  earlystudiesofHisinger;  curions  errore  '        '        ' 

Section  of  thé  rocks  ofKinneknile     ...  [       ' 

Angelin  on  thecrustaceaof  Scandinavia  "       *»"  '       * 

Barrandé  on  thefossiliferous  rocks  ofBohemia      "       '       ' 
The  so-called  primordial  Silurian   .        .     '  •        •        i 

ThdfossilsoftheLiqgulaflagsofWales"   .    *        '        *        * 
Fodçiliférous  rocks  oftheMalvem  Hills  '       *        '       • 

Subdivision  oftheWngulaflagsstbeMenevi'anb^ds    "    .    ' 
Fossds  of  Lower  Cambrian  or  Harlech  rocks 

True  boundary  between  Cambrian  and  Silm-ian    "        *        ' 
Breaks  in  the  succession  ofthe  lower  rooks 
Note  on  the  Tremadoc  rocks       .        .        .    * 

Kamsay  on  stratigraphical  breaks  .    ' 

General  considérations  on  breaks  in  geological  séries     *        ' 
NoteonthethicknessofBritishCamWandSrrian    '       " 
Murohison  and  the  Cambrian  nomenclature  ' 

Heconfounds  the  Longmynd  and  Bala  groupa      .    '   .    '        " 
.  Thestatements  of  his  Siluria  criticised      . 

'  DiSr'"'/?  *°  *'  ^""•"^*°  •"«*  SUurian  nomeiiclat;™   " 
D^trbutionofLowerapdMiddle  Cambrian  rocks    . 
Cry8tell,ne8chistsofMalvemandofAngle8ea      . 
Gold-beanngLingnlaflagsofNorthWales  '        * 

&«dgwick's  latest  views  on  classiflcation    . 

Tabular  View  of  lower  palœozoio  rocks.       .   *       '        '       " 


TK   ^^^-''^'"'^  a™  SILCBIAH-ROCKS  «  NOBXH  AmKBICA, 

me  geological  survey  <tt  New  York 

Hall  on  the  Pooksof  the  New  York  System' 

Ihe  Taoonio  System  équivalent  to  Lower  and  Middle  ckmbrian 
The  paleontological  déterminations  ofHaU  .  '""'•' "^'^""'^ 
Sh^tigraphicalerrorsoftheTaconlo  System  *  '  * 
^^T'^'T^  *"^  "••  primordial  trilobltes  of  Vennoùt  ' 
ContributioM  of  Barrandé  ami  BUllng»  to  the  snbject 
Jogan^on  the  T«K,nic  rocks  ofVermfnt  :  T  *  ' 
Hall  s  déterminations  and  the  erron,  of  Hisinrtr  '       ' 

JjgfleM  «Bd^LagMMit  tfHTwaw  tocka      . ~ — - — 


xliii 

.    8fi6 

865 
.    867 

868 
.    862 

868 
.    364 

864 

0 

.    866 
'866 
.    867 
867 
.    368 
869 
.    370 
370 
.    371 
372 
.    374 
'876 
376 
876 
877 
877 
878 
380 
880 
881 
882 
888 
888 
884 
884 
886 


887 
887 
888 
889 
890 
891 
892 
894 
896 
»9a 


4> 


897 


•■'M 


,,'è.f. 


^fti^iu'^w^'î.yi  -Uîï'i 4. >>^.4t?* 'î;^*  Mift i/*ctiM.  t/«*, 


ïfô~'"'^^ 


>   (•■'- 


xliv 


TAÉLE  OP  CONTENTS, 


The  graptolitesof  Point  Levis        .       .       .,      j 
Discoverydftrilobitesat  Point  L«Tii.       .       ... 
Logan  desoribes  and  defines  the  Québec  gronp    .  .       . 
He  supposes  a  great  and  continuons  dislocation        . 
Hall  accepts  Logan'a  stratigraphlcal  conclusions  . 
PoUdom  of  tbp  Ottawa  basin  and  of  Wisconsin . 
Its  relations  tothe  primordial  of  Europe       .        < 
History  of  the  Paradoxides  Harlani  of  Braintree 
The  primordial  fanna  in  Newfonndland  and  New  Brunswick 
Murrayonthegeolo^of  Newfonndland   .       .       .       ^ 
The  Lowêr  Potsdam  fauna  of  Billings    .       .       . 
fîpsgiliferous  rocks  of  Troy,  New  York 
Menevian  fanna  in  New  Brunswick       .... 
Crystalline-schistsof  NovaScotia      .       .       .       .    , 
Eophyton  and  its  supposed  geological  relations      .       . 
Hicks  and  Barrande  on  the  early  trilobitic  fanns 
Hurray  on  ancient  fossiliferous  rocks  in  Nevrfonndland 
Dawson  on  ancient  fûraminii^ral  forma 

On  the  Palsotrochis  of  Emmons 

Billings  on  paleontological  breaks  in  the  Ottawa  basin 
The  tme  horizon  of  the  Levislimestc^lte  "      . 
Its  équivalents  in  Great  Brit^in  and  elsewhere  i. 
Unconformability  of  GalcifeA>us  and  Trenton  formations 
Discordance  between  the  Québec  and  Trenton  groupa     ,^ 
Lesley  on  a  similar  discordance  in  Pennsylvania   .     ■  . 
The  Chazy  formation  on  the  Ottawa  Kiver 
Absencf  of  the  sec<Hid  fauna  to  the  eastward 
Distribution  ofjhe  Lower  Hel4erbei;g  fauna      . 
History  of  the  Qncida  conglomerate       .... 
Mingling  ef  second  and  third  fannas  on  the  Saguenay 
Fossiliferous  rocks  ofAnticosti      .       .       .      <. 
Middle  Silurian  division  ip  Oreat  Britain  .       .       .     . 
MiddleSilurianof  Billings  différent  therefriom       .       . 
Two  ftiunas  in  the.Upper  Silurian  of  Hurchison     '  . 
The  Onondaga  and  Waterviime  formations    . 
Introduction  of  the  terms  SUnrian  and  Devonian  in  Amerlos 
ViewsofDe  Venieuil  and  of  Hall  .       .       .       .       . 
Names  adopted  by  the  geological  survey  of  Canada  . 
The  geological  survey  ^  Pennsylvania  .       .       .       »- 
The  nomenclature  ad<q>ted  by  Rogers       .       .       .       • 
Sogers  on  the  Britisb  équivalents  of  American  rocka    . 
Errorsof  the  Silurian  nomenclaturs   ..... 
The  Upper  Cambrian  or  Silnn><lambrian  division 
Jukes  and  Giekie  oit  the  Silurian  nomenclature 
Barrande's  downward  extension  of  SOnrlan  .       . 
Gf«atimpoirtmioeofSedgwiok't  geological  bb<»a     ; 


809 
.«400 

401 
.   402 

40S 
.    403 

404 
.    406 

406 

.    406 

"40r 

.   407 

407 
.    408 

409 
-.   409 

410 
.   411 

411 
.   412 

412 
.   412 

418 
.   418 

414 
:   414 

416 
.   416 

.   417 

417 
.   417 

418 
.    418 

418 
.   419 

419 
.   420 

420 
.    421- 

422, 
.    421 

428 
.    424 

424 
.   426 


■*fai, 


■*M(3^'V„'*^    f      »-     ^    *  *     ^ 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


XVI. 


xlv 


THEOBT.OP  CHEMICAL  6haNGES  AND  EQUIVALENT  VOLUMES 

(1868). 
The  physical  and  chomioal  hiatoi^r  of  matter 

Génération  of  Chemical  gpeciesoonsidered         .  "    .   '    . 
Theoiyof  double  décomposition     . 

On  the  relations  oflower  to  higher  gpecies 
The  sigiiiflcance  ofcombination  by  volumes  . 
The  nature  of  Chemical  union  and  of  solution   . 
Belations  of  chloriiw  i»  hydrogen  and  hydrocarbons 
Laarenfs  law^f  divisibility  in  forinulas 

-SZl?!^?»?"'!?  "fi  équivalents  of  oxygeir'and  carboi 
latension  of  the  principle  of  progressive  séries . 
Belations  between  density  and  équivalent  weight  in  msea* 
BelaUons  between  density  and  équivalent  ^eight  in  S 
Hlgheqflivalentweightsofsolidspeoies        .       . 
Playfair  and  Joule  on  équivalent  volumes . 
Equivalent  volumes  ofciTstalline  solide        .    *  .    * 
Equivalent  Yolumesofliquidspecies.       .   '  ;   * 


426 
427 
428 
428 
429 
429 
.430 
481 
481 
482 
482 
488 
484 
484 
486 
436 


xvn. 


Progressive  or  homologous  séries  in  chemistry 

General  formula  for  silica  and  otheroxides       . 
Equivalent  volume  of  certain  salts  . 
Probable  constitution  of  the  carbon-sparê  .    * 
Hlnstratlonsofisomoiphismandof  homolôgy  * 
BelaUons  between  the  varions  triclinic  feldspars 
A  slmilar  View  snbseqnently  adopted  by  Tschermak 
TJe  IWdspathides;  scapolites,  béryl,  and  iolite  .       . 
Tfaegreaatides;  zoisiteorsanssurite'    . 
Polymerism  in  minerai  speciesillnstrated  . 
BelaOôns  between  thejades  and  the  scupolites  ' 
The  allomerisijof  Professer 'Cooke    . 


439 
440 
440 
441 
442 
448 
444 
446 
446 
446 
447 
447 


XVIII. 


TH0UQH7S  ON  SOLUTION  AND  THE  CHEMICAL  PBOCESS  (1864) 

yiews  of  *Briou8  chemistt  as  to  the  natur»of  solution 

Solution  malntainedtobe  Chemical  untolT.  •       •       •       448 

Chemical  union  is  identiflcatio»     .  • .449 

Chemical decomposiUon or dii&rentiatiJn.  '.  *       '       *,      '       '       f?? 
Nature  of  double  décomposition     .  ••••**  461 


Action  by  piw|iiTn>  ^  ^li^giynjg  ^ 


HT 


xlvi 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


XIX. 

ON  THE  0BJECT8  AND  METHOD  OP  MINERALOGY  (1867). 

Mineralogy  in  its  relations  to  chemistry  and  natural  history .       .  .       468 

Mineralogy  the  natoral  history  of  ail  nnorganized  matter .       .       .  \   464 

Objecta  to  be  attâined  in  a  natnral  classification 464 

Views  of  Oken  and  of  Stallo    *  .        .       .       ...       .       .  .   464 

The  natnre  of  chemical  species  defined ' .  .       466 

Varying  condensation  and  équivalents  of  solid  species      .        .  ,     .  .   466 

Relations  ofvaporstoliqaids  and  solids         .        .        .        .If'..  .        466 

Evidences  ôfpolymerism  in  solid  species •   467 

XX. 

TÈEORY  OF  TYPES  pj  CHEMISTRY  (1848-1861). 

Eolbeonoxidesof  Carbon  as  types  in  chemistiy 460 

Ad.  Wurtz's  criticism  of  Kolbe .  460 

Importanceof  the  conception  of  types  in  chemistry 461 

Vievrs  of  Williamson  and  of  Gerhardt •  .462 

Laurent  on  water  as  a  type 468 

The  author's  views  on  the  water-type 463 

On  anhydrous  monobasic  acids 464 

The  conception  ofcondenkedcHrpoIymerio  types 464 

The  nature  ofsulphnr,  ozone,  and  nitrogen 464 

Hydrogen  the  fandamental  type     ........  466 

Noteonthe  theory  of  nitrification 466 

On  the  value  and  signiflcanceofrational  formulas        ....  466 
The  bypothesis  ofradicles  and  substitution  bytesidaes   .       .       .       .466 

Ad.  Wurtz  on  polyatomic  radicles  .       .       .    ' 466 

The  genesis  of  the  phosphoric  acids  explained 466 

Gerhardt  on  polybasic  and  sub-salts       .......  467 

The  sulphates  considered  as  derived  irom  polyatomic  radicleb .       .       .  467 

Priority  of  the  author  to  WiUiamson  and  to  Ciiarhardt  ....  468 

Affendiz. 

The  iheoryof  nitrification 470 

Views  as  to  the  double  nature  of  nitrogen  gas       .       .       .       .       .    ,  470 

Its  conversion  into  ammonia  and  nitrous  acid    .       .       .       .       .       .  470 

^  The  intervention  of  ozone  in  the  process 471 

Experiments  of  Schonbein  on  nitrification ....       ^       ..  471 

Nicklès  on  the  priority  of  the  author 472 

Schaeffer  on  the  theory  of  nitrification 478 


1 


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i 


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I 


■••X      ■'  -T , 


THEORY  OF  IGN^OUS  ROCKS  AND 

i  .  „  ...  * 

\  (1858.) 

The  «Bllowlng  Essay.  read  before  the  Canadlan'Institute.  at  Toronto,  Ifarch  13  1858 
wag  printed  In  the  Canadian  Journal  for  May  ot  the  aame  year.  It  may  be  re^ed 
ai  a  flrst  contribution  to  tiie  theoretloal  notion*  developed  la  some  of  the  Ibllowing 

In  a  note  in  the  American  Journal  of  Scieiac©  for  January, 
1858,  I  hâve  ventured  to  put  forwaïd  some  émulations  upon 
the  chemistry  of  a  cooling.  globe,  such  as  the  igneous  theory 
supposes  qtir  earth  to  hâve  been  at  an  early  period.    Consid- 
ering  only  the  crust  with  which  geology  makes  us  acquainted, 
and  the  liquid  and  gaseous  éléments  which  now  surmund  it, 
I  hâve  endeavored  to  show  that  we  may  attain  to  some  idea 
of  the  Chemical  conditions  of  the  cooling  mass  by  conceiving 
thèse  materials  to  again  react  upon  each  other  under  the  influ- 
ence of  an  intense  heat.    The  quartz,  which  is  présent^  in  such 
a  great  proportion  in  many  rocks,  would  décompose  ^he  cai^ 
bonates  and  sulphates,  and,  aided  by  the  présence  of  water, 
the  chlondes  both  of  the  rocky  strate  and  the  sea;  whUe  the 
orgamc  matteia  and  the  fossU  carbon  would  be  bumed  by  the 
atmospheric  oxygen.      From  thèse  reactions  would  resuit  a 
fused  masa  of  silicates,  of  alumina,  alkalies,  lime,  inagnesia, 
iron,  etc.;  while  aU  the  carbon,  sulphur,  and  chlorine,  in 
the  form  of  acid  gases,  mixed  with  watery  vapor,  azote,  and 
a  probable  excess  of  oxygen,  would  fom  an  exceedingly  dense 
atmosphère.      When  the  cooling  penpitted  condeiisation,  an 
acid  rain  would,  faU  upon  the  heated  crust  of  the  earth,  de- 
compoeing  the  sincates,  and  giving  rise  to  iAlorides  and  «ul^ 


£^(''^f.,«ËÉè^U>^      i    t-K, 


'•/a&çÈi^'.     v.Jf    jr    ,>  „1«  ,-  ^^'H.    **„.  VJ^ii^î^^-* 


-■f.'.,  ..-K,  .■ 


•<'iK«*i*«»*p 


i 


THEORY  OF  IGNEOUS  ROCKS  AND  V0LCAN0E8. 


II. 


phates  of  the  varions  bases,  while  the  separated  silica  would 
probably  take  thé  form  of  crystalline  quartz. 

In  the  next  stage,  the  portions  of  the  primitive  crust  nôt 
covered  by  the  océan  undergo  a  décomposition  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  hot  moist  atmosphère  charged  with  carbonic  acid, 
and  the  feldspathic  silicates  are  converted  into  clays  with 
séparation  of  an  alkaline  silicate,  which,  decomposed  by  the 
carbonic  acid,  finds  its  way  to  the  sea  in  the  form  of  alftaline 
bicarbonate,  where,  having  first  precipitated  any  dissolved  ses- 
quioxides,  it  changes  the  dissolved  lime-salts  into  bicarbonate. 
This,  precipitated  chemically  or  separated  by  organic  agencies, 
gives  rise  to  limestones,  the  chloride  of  calcium  being  at  tâe 
same  time  replaced  by  common  sait.*  The  séparation  from 
the  waters  pf  the  océan  of  gypsuro  and  sea-salt,  and  of  the 
salts  of  potash  by  the  «gency  of  marine  plants,  and  by  the 
formation  of  glauconite,  are  cônûderations  foreign  to  our  prés- 
ent study. 

In  this  Vay  we  obtain  a  notion  of  the  processeg  by  which, 
from  a  primitive  fused  mass,  may  be  generated  the  silicious, 
câlcareous,  and  argillaceous  rocks  which  make  up  the  greater 
part  of  the  earth's  crust,  and  we  also  understand  the  source  of 
the  salts  of  the  océan.  But  the  question  hère  arises  whether 
this  primitive  crystalline  rock,  which  probably  approached  to 
dolerite  in  its  composition,  is  now  anywhere  visible  upon  the 
eai-th's  surface.  It  is  certain  that  the  oldest  known  rocks  are 
stratified  deposits  of  limestone,  clay,  and  sands,  generally  in  a 
highly  altered  condition,  but  thèse,  as  well  as  i^re  récent 
strata,  are  penetrated  by  varions  injectèd  rocks,  suchWTgranites, 
trachytes,  syenites,  porphyries,  dolerites,  phonolites,  etc.  Thèse 
oifer  in  their  mode  of  occur^nce,  not  less  than  their  compo- 
sition, so  many  analogies  with  tho  lavas  of  modem  volcànoes, 
that  thty  also  are  universally  supposed  to  be  of  igneous  origin, 
and  to  owe  their  peculiarities  to  slow  cooling  under  pressure. 
This  conclusion  being  admitted,  we  proceed  to  inquire  into  the 
source»  of  thèse  liquid  masses  which,  from  the  earliest  known 
geological  period  up  to  the  présent  day,  hâve  been  from  time 

— -^- — ■* — ^  Brtin  thlr<J«ttcction  th*  BOto  ftppead^,  p<^  lOr-— 


i'«";,fs 


L]  THEORY  OF  IGNEOUS  ROCKS  AND  V0LCAN0E8.  3 

to  time  ejected  from  below.     They  are  generally  regarded  ai 
,  eyidences  both  of  the  igneous  fusion  of  the  interior  of  oiir 
planet,  and  of  a  direct  communication  between  the  surface  aL 
'    the  fluid  nucleus,  which  is  suçposed  to  be  the  source  of  le 
vanous  ejected  rocks.  j 

^    Thèse  intrusive  masses,  however,  offer  very  «^t  diversities 
in  their  composition,  from  the  higUy  siUciom/and  feldspathic 
gmnites,  eurites,  and  trachytes,  in  which  Ue,  magnesia,  and 
iron  are  présent  in  very  smaU  quantities,  anA  in  which  potash 
w  the  prédominant  alkali,  to  the  denser  blic  rock»,  dolerite, 
dionte,  tmp,  and  basait  ;  in  thèse,  lime,  magiisia,  and  iron-oxidê 
are  abundant,  and  soda  prevaUs  over  the  {iotash.     To  àccount 
for  thèse  différences  in  the  composition  of/the  injected  rocks    ' 
Phillips, jmd  after  him  Durocher,  suppoi^e  the  interior  fluid 
mass  to  haVe  sepamted  into  a  denser  stratjimi  of  the  basic  sUi- 
cates,  upon  which  a  lightor  and  more  silicibus  portion  floats  like 
oïl  upon  water  ;  and  that  thèse  two  liquiids,  occasionalîy  more  ^ 
pr  less  modified  by  a  partial  crystallizati(in  and  eUquation  or 
by  a  refusion,  giye  rise  to  the  principal  vaifietiea  of  sUicious  ând 
basic  rocks  ;  while  from  the  mingling  of  tHe  two  zones  of  liquid 
matter  lutermediate  rocks  are  formed.     (PhiUips's  Manual  of 
J^eology,  p.  656,  and  Durocher,  Annales  des  Mines.  1857  VoL 
I.  p.  217.)       .'  /  ,        7  ,      X. 

M  analogous  View  was  suggested  by  Bunsen  in  his  researches 
on  the  volcanic  rocks  of  Iceland,  and  extended  by  Streng  to 
similar  it>cks  in  Hungary  and  Armenia.     Thèse  investigators  > 
suppose  the  existence  beneath  the  earth's  crust  of  a  trachVtic 
and  a  pyroxenic  magma  of  constant  composition,  representing  ' 
respectively  the  two  great  divisons  of  roc^  which  we  hâve 
just  distinguished  ;  and  hâve  endeavored  to  calculate  from  the 
amount  of  sUica  in  any  intennediate  variety,  the  proportions  in 
Which  thèse  two  magmas  must  hâve  been  mingled  to  produce 
it,  and  consequently  the  proportions  of  alumina,  lime,  magnesia 
iron-oxide  and  alkaUes  which  such  a  rock  may  be  expected  to 
^ntain.     But  the  amounts  thus  calculated,  as  ma^  be  seen 
fiom  Dr.  Streng's  results,  do  not  always  correspond  with  the 


..^wsnlts  of  wialyM*  <StiOTg,  AimateB  de  Chame  W  de  Phy^ 


/■ 


THEORY  OP  IGNEOUS  ROCKS  AND  VOLCANOES. 


p. 


i-* 


Tliird  Séries,  YoL  XXXIX.  p.  52.)  Résides,  there  are  intiu* 
eive  rocks,  Buch  as  the  phonolites,  which  are  highly  basic,  and 
yet  contain  but  v«ry  small  quantities  of  lime,  magnesia,  and 
iron-oxide  ;  roing  eesentially  silicates  of  alumina  and  alkaHm^ 
-in  part  hydrated. 

We  may  hère  remark  that  many  of  the  so-called  igneous 
rocks  are  oftenXof  undoubted  sedimentary  origin.  It  will_ 
scarcely  be  questioned  that  this  is  true  of  many  granités,  and 
it  is  certain  that  àll  the  feldspathic  rocks  coming  under  the 
catégories  of  hypente,  lahradorite,  diorite,  and  amphibôlite, 
which  make  so  large  a  part  of  the  Laurentian  system  in,  !N'ôrth 
America,  are  of  sedimWtary  origin.  They  aie  hère  interstrati- 
.  fied  with  hmestones,  qdipmites,  serpentines,  crystalline  gneisses 
and  quartzites,  which  licU^r  are  often  conglomerate.  The  same 
thing  is  true  of  .similar  feldspathic  rocks  in  the  crystalline 
strata  of  the  Green  Mountains.  Thèse  metamorphic  strata 
hâve  been  exposed  to  conditions  which  hâve  rendered  some  of 
them  quasi-fluid  or  plastic.  Thus,  for  example,  crystalline 
hmestone  may  be  seen  in  positions  which  hâve  led  many  ob* 
servers  to  regard  it  as  intrusive  rock,  although  its  gênerai  mode 
of  ocdirrence  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  its  sedimentary  origin.  We 
A  find  in  the  Laurentian  system  that  t^e  limeetones  sometimes 
\  envelope  the  broken  and^  contorted  frt^gments  of  the  beds  of 
Aquartzitë,  with  which  they  are  often  interstratified,  and  pene- 
Wte  like  a  véritable  trap  into  fissures  in  the  quarteite  and 
gneiss.  A  rock  of  sedimentary  origin  may  then  assume  the 
conditions  of  a  soKsailed  igneous  rock,  and  who  shall  say  that 
any  intrusive  gianites^  dolentes,  euphotides,  or  serpentines 
hâve  an  origin  distinct  £tom  the  metamorphic  strata  of  the  same 
kind  which  make  up  such  vast  portions  of  the  older  stratified 
formations  1  To  suppose  that  each  of  thèse  sedimentary  rocks 
bas  also  its  represenfeative  among  the  ejected  products  of  the 
central  fire,  seenu  a  hypothesis  not  only  imnecessary,  but,  when 
wé  consider  their  var3ring  composition,  untenable. 

We  aie  next  led  to  conrider  the  nature  of  the  agencies  which 
hâve  prodaced  this  plastic  condition  in  varions  crystalline 
-wftfcfe    Cortaitt  fitot»  auoh  oo  tho  pgweaoe  ia^  them  of  gi^^bité- 


I]  THEOBY  Of  IGNEOUa  EOCEfl  AND  VOLCAxVOES.  5 

in  contact  with  carbonate  of  lime  and  oxide  of  iron,  not  lésa 
than  the  preaence  of  alkaliferoua  sUicates  like  the  feldspara  in 
éiystaUme  limeatonea,  forbid  ug  to  admit  the  ordinary  notion 
of  the  intervention  of  an  intense  heat«ich  as  would  produce 
an  ignee««4ugi«»,  and  lead  us  to^^nsider  the  view  first  put 
forwârd  by  Pouletl   Scrope,*  and   since  ably  advocated   by 
Scheerer  and  by  Eli^  de  Beaumont,  of  the  intervention  of  wator 
aided  by  beat,  whiA  thgy  suppose  may  communicate  a  plasticity 
to  rocks  at  a  température  far  below  that  lequired  for  their 
ïgneous  fusion-     The  présence  of  water  in  the  kvas  of  modem 
volcanoes  led  Mr.  Scrope  to  speculate  upon  the  effect  which  a 
smaU  portion  of  this  élément  might  exert,  at  an  e^evated  tem- 
perature  and  under  pressure,  in  giving  liquidity  to  masses  of 
rock,  and  he  extended  this  idea  from  proper  volcanic  rocks  to 
'^  gramtes.  .  , 

Scheerer,  in  his  inqui^  into  the  origin  of  gmnite,  has^p-  * 
pealed  to  the  évidence  afforded  us  by  the  structure  of  this  rock 
that  the  inore  fusible  feldapars  and  mica  crystalliwd  before  thé 
ahnost  infusible  quarte.     H«  also  points  to  the  existence  in 
gramte  of  what  hi^  bas  caUed  pyrognomic  minerais,  such  as 
aUanite  and  gadoHnite,  which,  when  heated  to  low  redness, 
undergo  a  peculiar  and  permanent  molecular  change,  accom' 
panrtd  by  an  augmentation  in  density  and  a  change  in  ch^mic^l^ 
properties  ;  a  phenomenon  completely  analogous  to  that  offered 
by  titanio  acid  and  chromic  oxide  in  their  change  by  ignition 
from  a  golable  to  an  insoluble  condition.    Thèse  facts  seem  to 
excluie  the  idea  of  igneous  fusion,  and  point  to  some  other 
cause  of  liquidity.    The  présence  of  nàtroKte  as  an  intégral 
part  of  the  zircon-syenites  of  Norway,  and  of  talc,  chlorite,  and 
other  hydrous  minerais  in  many  granité»  shows  thairvater 
was  not  excluded  from  the  original .  granitio  paste.,  S^rer 
appeals,  by  way  of  iUustration,  to  the  influence  of  smaU  portions 
of  carboh  and  sulphur  in  greatly  reducing  the  fusing  point  of 
won.    He  aUudes  to  the  expènments  of  Schaf  hautl  and  Wohler, 
which  show  that  quartz  and  apophyUite  may  be  <iiMolved  by 
heated  wàter,  under  pressure,  and  ref.ty8talli/.«d  ^n  ^nnli^g  _ 


See  Journal  of  Geological  Society  of  London,  VoL  XII,  p.  826L 


;-^'.iî%^^«.-:^l|^L^»aii4'MiSU*Ai.  ^^  iL'."^  .^*.  ,    v.  -^ 


'>;A1 


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6  THEORY  OF  IGNEOUS  ROCKS  AND  VOLCANOËS.  [L 

He  recalls  the  aqueous  fusion  of  many  hydijated  salts,  and 
finally  suggests  that  the  présence  of  a'small  amount  of  water, 
perhaps  five  or  ten  per  cent,  may  suffice,  at  a  température  which 
may  approach  that  of  redness,  to  give  to  a  granitic  mass  a 
liquidity  partaking  at  once  of  the  characters  of  an  igneous  and 
an  aqueous  fusion. 

This  ingénions  hypothesis,  sustained  by  Scheerer  in  his  dis- 
cussion with  Durocher,*  is  strongly  confirmed  by  the  late  ex- 
periments  of  Daubrée.     He  found  that  conunon  glass,  a  silicate 
of  lime  and  alkali,  when  exposed  to  a  température  of  400°  C, 
in  présence  of  its  own  volume  of  water,  swelled  up  and  waa 
transformed  into  an  aggregate  of  crystals  of  wollastonite,  the 
alkali,  with  the  excess  of  silica,  separating,  and  a  great  part  of 
th^  latter  crystallizing  in  the  form  of  quartz.     When  the  glass 
,  contained  oxide  of  iron,  the  wollastonite  was  replaced  by  crys- 
tals of  diopside.     Obsidian  in  the  same  manner  yielded  crystals 
of  feldspar,  and  was  converted  into  a  mass  like  trachyte.     In 
thèse  experimentï  upon  vitreous  alkaliferous  matters,  the  pro- 
cess  of  nature  in  the  metamorphosis  of  sédiments  is  reversed  ; 
but  Daubrée  found  still  farther  that  kaolin,  when  exposed  to  a 
beat  of  400°  C.  in  the  présence  of  a  soluble  alkaline  sUicate,  is 
converted  into  crystalline  feldspar,  while  the  excess.  of  silica 
séparâtes  in  the  form  of  quartz.     He  fôund  naturel  feldspar 
and  diopside  to  be  extremely  stable  in  the  présence  of  alkaline 
solutions.     Thèse  beautiful  results  were  communicated  tp  the 
French  Academy  of  Sciences  on  the  16th  of  November  last, 
and,  ^  the  author  well  remarked,  enable  us  to  undeïstand  the 
part  which  water  may  play  in  giving  origin  to  crystafiine  min- 
erais in  lavas  and  intrusive  rocks.     The  swelling  up  of  the 
glass  also  shows  that  water  gives  a  mobility  to  the  particîes  of 
the  glass  at  a  température  fer  below  that  of  its  igneous  fusion. , 
I  had  akeady  shown  in  the  Eeport  of  the  Geological  Sur- 

•  See  for  the  arguments  on  the  two  aides,  Bulletin' of  the  Geol.  Soc.  of 
France,  Second  Séries,  Vol.  IV.  pp.  468,  1018  ;  VI.  644  ;  VII.  276  •  VIII 
600  ;  also,  Elie  de  Beaumont,  Ibid.,  Vol.  IV.  p.  1S12.  See  also  the  re^ 
cent  microscopical  observations  of  Mr.  Sorby,.  conflrming  the  theory  of  the 
agneo-igneons  origin  of  granité  In  th>  L.  E.  &  D.  Phil.  Mag.,  Febr 


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I]  THEORY  OF  IGNEOUS  BOCKS  AND  VOLCANOES.  7 

vey  of  Canada  for  1856,  p.  479,  that  the  reaction  between 
alkaline  silicates  and  carbonates  of  lime,  magnesia  and  iron  at  a 
température  of  100°  C.  gives  rise  to  siUcates  of  thèse  bases,  and 
enables  us.to  explain  their  production  from  a  mixture  of  car- 
bonates and  quartz,  in  the  présence  of  a  solution  of  alkaUne 
carbonate.     I  there  also  suggested  that  the  silicates  of  alumina 
/m  sedimentaiy  rocks  may  combine  with  alkaline  siUcates  to 
form  feldspars  and  mica,  and  that  it  would  be  possible  to  crys- 
.  tallize  thèse  minerais  from  hot  alkaline  solutions  in  sealed 
tubes.     lu  this  way  I  explained  the  occurrence  of  thèse  siU- 
cates  m  altered  fossiliferous  strata.     My  conjectures  are  now 
confirmed   by  the  experiments  of  Daubrée,  which  serve   to 
complète  the  démonstration  of  my  theoiy  of  the  normal  met*- 
morphism  of  sedimentary  rocks  by  the  interposition  of  heated 
alkaline  solutions. 

But  to  retum  to  the  question  of  intrusive  rocks  :  Calculations 
based  on  the  iacreasing  température  of  the  earth's  crust  as  we 
descend,  lead  to  the  belief  that  at  a  depth  of  about  twenty-five 
çiil^  the  beat  must  be  sufficient  for  the  igneous  fusion  of  ba- 
^    sait.     The  récent  observations  of  Hopkins,  however,  show  that 
•   m  melting  points  of  varions  bodies,  such  as  wax,  sulphur  and 
Tesm,  are  greatly^nd  progressively  raised  by  pressure,  so  that   ' 
ftom  analogy  we  may  conclude  that  the  interior  portions  of  the 
earth  are,  although  ignited,  soUd  from  great  pressure.     This 
conclusion  accords  with  the  mathematifial  déductions  of  Mr 
Hopkins,  who,  from  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  calculâtes 
the  sohd  crust  of  the  earth  to  hâve  a  thickness  of  800  or  1,000 
.    miles.     Similar  investigations  by  Mr.  Hennessey,  however,  as- 
sign  600  miles  as  the  maximum  thickness  of  the  crust.     The 
région  of  liquid  fire  being  thus  removed  so  far  from  the  earth's 
surface,  Mr.  Hopkins  suggests  the  existeïice  of  lakes  or  limited 
basins  of  jnolten  matter,  which  serve  to  feed  the  volcanoes. 

Now  the  supposed  mode  of  formation  of  the  primitive  molten 

crust  of  the  earth  would  naturally  exclude  ail  combined  or 

intermingled  water;  whUe  ail  the  sedimentary  rocks  are  neces- 

,  JgntypenneatgjLhy  this  liqaidHffiA^B8eqBen%tn.atH>HJiliott.  ^ 

to  be  rendered  semi-fluid  by  the  appUcation  of  beat  as  supposed 


itS^^ft,;  • 


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6  THEOET  OF  lOSEOTO  ItOCKS  A^D  TOtOpOBS.         (L 

in  the  theory  of  Scrope  and  ScÀeerer.  If  noyr  we  admit  t^t 
fill  igneous  rocks,  ancient  plutouic  maases'  m  well  as  modem 
lavas,  hâve  their  origin  in  the  liquéfaction  of  sedimeutaiy 
stiata,  we  at  once  explain  the  diversities  in  theic  (Composition. 
We  can  aiso  underatand  why  the  pioducts  of  volcanoes  ia  dif- 
férent régions  are  so  unlike,  and  why  the  lavas  ^f  the  same 
volcano  vary  at  différent  période.  We  find  an  explanation  of 
the  water  and  carbonic  acid  which  are  such  constant  accompani- 
ments  of  volcanic  action,  as  well  as  the  hydrochloric  acid,  sul- 
phuretted  hydrogei\^and  sulphuric  acid,  which  aie  so  abundantly 
evolved  by  certain  voloanoes.  The  reaction  between  eilica  and 
carbonates  most  give  rise  to  carbonic  acid,  and  the  décompo- 
sition of  seansalt  in  saUferoua  strata  by  silica,  in  the  présence  of 
watOT,  will  generate  hydrochloric  acid  ;  while  gypsum  in  the 
same  way  will  evolve  its  sulphur  in  the  form  of  sulphurous 
acid  mixed  with  oxygen.  The  présence  of  fossil  plants  in  the 
melting  strata  would  generate  carburetted  hydrogen  gases, 
whbse  reducing  action  would  convert  the  sulphurous  acid  into 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  ;  or4he  reducing  agency  of  the  carbona- 
ceous  matters  might  give  rise  to  sulphuret  of  calcium,  which 
would  ,be,  in  its  tum,  decomposed  by  carbonic  acid  or  other- 
wise.  The  intervention^  of  such  matters  in  volcanic  phenom-^ 
enon  is  indicated  by  the  récent  investigations  of  Deville,  who 
has  found  carburetted  hydrogen  in  the  gaseous  émanations 
of  the  regioa  of  Etna  and  the  lagoons  of  Tuscany.  The 
anunonia  and  the  nitrogen  of  volcanoes  are  also  in  many  cases 
piobably  derived  from  oiganic  matters  in  the  strata  decom- 
posed by  subterranean  beat.  The  carburetted  hydrogen  and 
bitumen  evolved  from  mud-volcaQoes,  like  those  of  the  Crimea 
and  of  Bakou,  and  the  carbonized  rem^ns  of  plants  in  the 
moya  of  Quito,  and  in  the  volcanic  mattera  of  the  Island  of 
Ascension,  not  less  than  the  infusorial  remains  found  by  Ehren- 
berg  in  the  ejected  matters  of  most  volcanoes,  ail  go  to  show 
that  fossiliferous  sédiments  are  very  generally  implicated  in 
volcanic  phenomena. 
It  is  to  Sir  John  F.  W.  Herscbel  that  we  owe,  so  far  as  I 
BWBze,  the  fint  suggeitions  of  the  tiraory  of  volcaniesctiôïr^ 


■Su^,^, 


7  "-fi-"'" 


\ 


IJ  THEOBT  OF  IGNEOUS  EOCgS  ANP  VOLCANOES.  0 

irhich  I  hâve  heie  brought  fomard.    In  a  letter  to  Sir  Charles 
LyeU,  dated  Februaiy  20,  1836  (Proceedings  Geol.  Soc.,  Lon- 
don,  VoL  XI.  p.  648),  he  maintaina  that  with  the  accumiÛation 
of  sédiment  the  isothennal  lines  ih  the  earth's  crust  must 
nse,  80  flmt  etiata  buried  deep  enough  will  be  cjystallized  a^d 
metamorphosed,  and  eventuaUy  be  raised,  with  their  included 
water,  to  the.melting-point.     This  will  give  rise  to  évolutions 
of  gases  and  vapors,  earthquakes,  volcanic  explosions,  etc.,  ail 
of  which  résulta  must,  according  to  known  laws,  fblîow  fi»m 
the  &ct  of  a  high  central  température;  while  from  the  me- 
chanical^wibiiwion  of  the  equiUbrium  of  preasuie,  foUowing 
upon  jMmmsfer  of  sédiments,  while  the  yieldiûg  surface 
^°^WÊf^  ^^  of  matter  partly  liquid  and  pàrtly  soUd, 
we  m3f%xplain  the  phenomeua  of  élévation  and  subsidencZ 
Such  M  a  summary  of  the  views  put  forward  more  than  twenty 
years  sinoe  by  this  eminent  phUosopher,  which,  although  they 
hâve  passed  almost  unnoticed  by  géologists,  seem  to  me  to 
furnish  a  simple  and  comprehensive  explanation  of  several 
of  the  most  difficult  problems  of  chemical  and  dynamical 
geology. 

To  sum  up  in  a  few  words  the  views  hère  advanced     We 
conceive  that  the  earth's  soUd  crust  of  anhydrous  and  primitive 
Igneous  rock  is  everywhere  deeply  concealed  beneath  its  own 
rmns,  which  form  a  great  mass  of  sedimentary  stiata,  per- 
meated  by  water.    As  beat  from  beneath  invades  thèse  sedi- 
mente,  it  produces  in  them  that  change  which  constitutes 
normal  metamorphism.    Thèse  rocks,  at  a  sufficient  depth, 
are  necessarily  in  a  state  of  igneo-aqueous  fusion,  and  in  the 
event  of  fracture  of  the  overlying  atrata,  may  riae  among  them. 
takmg  the  form  of  eruptive  rocks.    Where  the  nature  of  the 
sedimente  is  such  as  to  genewte  great  amounts  of  elastic  fluid» 
by  their  fusion,  earthquakes  and  volcanic  éruptions  may  resuit, 
and  these^  othef  things  being  equal,  wUl  be  most  likely  to 
occur  under  the  more  recent  formations.* 

[Note  to  page  2.  - 1  hâve  since  pdinted  out  that  the  évidences  of  a 
BumJar  process  are  still  to  hn  <wwn  in  the  gnmiteg  asA  «■«fa.Hi™  „. ._. 


•  See  further  in  thia  connection  Essaya  VI.  and  VIL 


r\ 


h  - 


THÈORYOF  IGNEOUS  BOCKS  AND  VÔLCANOES.  L] 

of  eozoic  âges  which  in  many  régions  are  decomposed  to  great  âepths, 
the  feldspar  being.  converted  into  kaolin,  while  the  hornblende  bas 
lost  ita  protoxide  bases,  the  peroxidized  iron  and  the  silica  remaining 
behind.  This  change  bas  affected  the  ctystalline  rocks  of  the  southem 
United  States  and  of  Brazil  to  depths  of  a  hundred  feet  or  more,  and 
doubtleiss  at  one  tipie  extended  to  ail  such  -rocks  as  were  above  the 
surface  of  the  océan.  The  absence  of  this  decay^d  material  from  certain 
régions  of  crystalline  rocks  is  to  be  attributed  to  its  subséquent  removal 
by  denudation,  a  process  which  in  the  northem  parts  of  Europe  and 
An^erica  terminated  at  the  close  «f  the  pliocène  period,  when  the  remain- 
ing softened  material  was  swépt  away  by  the  action  of  water  and  ice, 
and  the  hard  and  unchanged  rocks  beneath  were  exposed  and  glaeiated, 
since  which  timè  thé  cheipical  décomposition  of  the  surface  bas  been 
insignificant  It  is  this  process  which  was  called  by  Dolomieu  the 
maladie  du  granit,  and  ascribed  by  him  to  the  iniluence  of  carbonic-acid 
gas  from  subterranean  sources.  It  was,  however,  in  my  opinion  a  uni- 
versal  phenon\enon,  and  dépendent  upon  the  peculiar  composition  of  the 
atmosphère  in  early  times.  Thèse  decomposed^trata  fumished  the  great 
deposits  of  clay  and  sand  of  the  paleozoic  and  later  periods  ;  and  from 
them  was  diçsolved  the  iron  which  in  varions  forms  is  found  at  différent 
horizons  in  tl^  uncrystalline  rocks  ;  while  the  siljca  and  the  alkaline  and 
éarthy  carbonates,  removed  in  a  soluble_form  from  thèse  decaying  eozoio 
rocks,  hâve  generated  the  limestones,  dolomites,  and  varions  silicious  de- 
fposits.  (See  Proceedings  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History  for  October 
|15,  1873.)-, 

In  the  Proceedings  of  the  same  Society  for  February  18,  1874,  I  hâve 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  clay  resulting  from  this  decay  of 
rocks  remains  for  many  days  su^nded  in  pure  water,  though  not  in 
waters  even  slightly  saline,  and  is  therefore  readily  precipitated  in  a  few 
hours  when  the  turbid  fresh  waters  mingle  with  thqse  of  the  sea,  thns 
fonning  fine  argillaceous  sédiments.  The  geological  significance  of  tUs 
fact  was,  it  is  believed,  first  pointed  ont  in  1861  by  Mr.  Sidell  in  Hum- 
phreys  and  Abbot's  Report  on  the  Physics  and  Hydraulics  pf  the  Missis- 
sippi River  (Appcndix  A,  page  xi.),  where  he  applied  it  to  explain 
the  accumulations  of  mud  at  this  river's  mouth.  Many  chemical  pré- 
cipitâtes, in  like  nianner,  which  may  be  washed  on  a  filter  with  acid 
or  saline  solutions,  readily  paas  through  its  pores  if  suspendëd  in  pure 
water.  I  hâve  sought  to  explain  thèse  phenomena  by  thè  principle  that 
saline  matters  reduce  the  cohésion  between  water  and  the  suspendëd 
particles,  thus  allowing  gravity  and  their  own  cohésion  to  corne  into 
play.  Guthfie  (Proceedings  Royal  Society,- XIV.)  has  shown  that  the 
addition  of  small  qtiantities  of  saline  matters  to  water  diminisbes  the  size 
of  its  drops,  evidently  for  the  same  reason.] 


ffiBr".  ' 


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n. 


ON    SOME    POINTS   IN    CHEMICAL 
GEOLOaY. 

(1859.) 

A  paper  wlth  the  aboyé  tiOe  was  sent  to  the  Geolorical  Societv  of  T^nd„n  .-  " 

ta  the  L.  E.  &  D.  Philosophlcal  Magazine  for  February.  and  U  was  ï)ubli8h«d  tn  «niT, 
f^     sH  n^H.  '^'*'H°°  "'  »  '«''  '«'*«'».  '»  the  Canadian  Natumltoèfor  D«;embeT  .  "  •       ,  '  1 
l»«woniltted;wh«tfoUowamaybereganleda8a8upplementtrfthat         ■  ' 

•■«■••;■.'" 

Wheît  we  examine  the  waters  charged  ^th  èaime  matters  '.• 

which  im^iegnate  the  great  mass  of  calôareous  stràta  constitut- ^î       ,* 
ing  m  Canada  the  base  of  the  palaeozoic  seriea»  t^^e  find  that 
only  about  one  haïf  of  the  chlorine  is  combined  with  sodium  • 

the  remamder  exiats  as  chlorides  of  calcium  and  magnésium  thé 
former  predominating,  -  whUe  sulphates  are  présent  only  in    •   '         • 
small  amount.     If  now  we  compare  this  composition,  which    >       " 
•  71  ^  "H^    "î  ""  fepresenting  that  of  tïie  palœozoie  eea,  with         ^  ' 
that  of  the  modem  océan,  we  find  that:  the  chloride  of  calcium 

has  been  m  gfeat  part  replaced  by  common  salt,-a  process 
involvxn^  thB^^tervention  of  carbonate  of  soda,  and  tL  fo^      . 
mation  of  (jjbonate  of  Ume.     The  amount  of  magnesia  in  the         .     " 
sm,  although  dimxmshed  by  th^  formation  of  dolomite  and        7 
magnesite,  is  now  many  times  greater  than  thaiKof  the  lime  ;^-^     *     • 
for  so  long  as  chloride  of  calcium  remains  in  the  water,  the  mâ^ 
nesi^  salts  are  not  piecipitated  by  bicarbonate  of  soda!*    T 
When  we  consider  that  the  vast  amount  of  argillaceous  idi- 


\a;,  AAViii.  pp.  170,  806  ;  and  further,  Essays  VIII.  and  it 


\ 


k.^i  jii^à^Miii    .  '  "i  j^ 


M*  ir^  H  ^  1  v*t 


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12 


ON  SOME  POINTS  IN  CHEMICAL  GEOLOGY. 


PI. 


i^^\ 


mentary  matter  in  the  earth's  strata  has  doubtlessly  been  fonned 
by  the  same  process  wHich'  is  now  going  on,  namely,  the  de- 
composition  of  feldspathic  minerais,  it  is  évident  that  we  çan 
scarc4y  exaggerate  the  importance  of  the  part  which  the  alka- 
line  carbonates,  fonned  in  thi^  process,  must  hâve  played  in  the 
chemistry  of  the  seas.  (Page  2.)  We  hav»/>nly  to  recàll  waters 
like  Lake  Van,  therna^n-lakes  of  EgQrpt,  Hungary,  ànd  many 
other  régions,  the  great  amounts  of  carbonate  of  soda  fumished 
by  springs  like  those  of  Carlsbad>^  and  Vichy,  or  contained  in 
the  waters  of  the  Loire,  the  Ottawa,^  and  probably  many  other 
rivers  that  flow  from  regfons  of  crystalline  rocks,  to  be  reminded 
that  a  similar  though  much  «lower  process  of  décomposition  of 
'alkaliferous  silicates  is^till  going  on» 

A  striking  and  important  fact  in  ithe  history  of  the  sea,  and 
of  most  alkaline  and  saline  waters,  is  the  small  proportion  of 
potash-salts  which  they  contain.  Soda  is  pre-eminently  the 
soluble  alkali  ;  while  the  potash  in  the  earth's  crust  .is  locked 
up  in  the  form  of  insoluble  orthoclase,  the  soda-feldspf  rft  readily 
nndergo  décomposition.  Hence  we  find  in  the  analyses  of 
clays  and  argillites,  that  of  the  alkalies  which  thèse  rocks  still 
retain,  the  potash  almost  always  prédominâtes  greatly  over  the 
soda.  At  the  same  time  thèse  sédiments  contain  dilica  in  ex- 
cess,  and  but  small  portions  of  lime  and  magnesia.  Thèse  con- 
ditions are  readily  explained  when  we  consider  the  nature  of 
the  soluble  matters  found  in  the  minerai  waters  whioh  issue 
from  thèse  argillaceous  rotsks.  I  hâve  elsewhere  shown  that 
(setting  aside  the  waterô  charged  with  soluble  lime  and  mag- 
nesiarsalts,  issuing  firom  limestones  and  from  gypsiferous  and 
saliferous  formations)  the  springs  from  argillaceous  strata  are 
marked  by  the  prédominance  of  bicarbonate'  of  soda,  often 
with  portions  of  sili^te  and  borate,  besides  bicarbonates  of 
lime  and  magnesia,  and  occasionally  of  iron.  The  atmospheric 
waters  filtering  through  such  strata  remove  soda,  limie  and 
magnesia,  leasing  behind  the  silicd,  àlumina  and  potash, — the 
éléments  of  granitio  and  trachjrtic  rocks.  The  more  sandy 
clays  and  argillites  being  njosfr  perméable,  the  action  of  the  in- 
^faaU^^watera  will  be  mow  or  lew  coropletet  ^fhilfr  finer  ) 


te».;. 


f, 


IIJ  ON  80MB  POINTS  m  CHEMICAL  GEOLOGY.  13 

more  compact  clays  and  mark,  registing  the  pénétration  of  thia 
Iiqmd,  wiU  retain  their  soda,  lime,  and  magneeia,  and  by  sub- 
^uent  altération  vdll  give  me  to  basic  feldspars  containing 
hme  and  soda,  aiid  if  lime  and  magneeia  predominate,  to  hom- 
blende  or  pyroxene.  . 

The  présence  or  absence  of  iron  in  sédiments  demands  es- 
pecial  considération,  since  its  élimination  requires  the  interpo- 
sition  of  organic  matters,  which,  by  reducing  the  peroxide  to 
the  condition  of  protoxide,  render  it  soluble  in  water,  either 
as  bicarbonate  or  combined  with  some  organic  acîâ.    This 
action  of  waters  holding  oiganic  matter  upon  sédiments  con- 
taming  iron-oxide  haa  been  described  by  Bischof  and  manv 
other  wiiters,  particular^y  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Dawson  *  in  a  paper  on 
^e  colonng  matteis  of  some  sedimei^teiy  rocks,  and  is  appHca. 
ble  to  aU  cases  whepe  iron  has  been  removed  from  certain  strata 
and  accumulated  in  otherà.     This  is  seen  in  the  firenîlays  and 
iron-stones  of  the  coal-measures,  and  in  the  white  clays  associât- 
ed  xnth  great  beds  of  green-sand  (essentudly  a  sihcate  of  iron) 
in  the  cretaceous  séries  of  New  Jersey.     Similar  altemations 
of  white  feldspathic  beds  with  others  of  iron-ore  occur  in  the 
Green  Mountain  rocks  of  Canada,  and  on  a  still  more  remark- 
able  scale  in  those  of  the  Laurentian  séries.     We  may  probably 
look  upon  the  formation  of  beds  of  iron-ore  as  in  ail  case»  due 
to  the  intervention  of  oi^ganic  matterp  ;  so  that  its  présence,  not 
less  than  that  of  graphite,  afFords  évidence  of  the  existence  of   " 
organic  life  at  the  time  of  the  déposition  of  thèse  old  crystal- 
line  rocks. 

The  agency  of  sulphuric  and  nrariatic  acids,  from  volcanic 
and  pther  sources^  is  not,  however,  to  be  eyoluded  in  the  solu- 
tion of  oxide  of  iron  and  other  metaUifc  oxides.  '  The  oxidâtioi» 
of  pyrites,  moreover,  gives  rise  to  solutions  of  iron  and  aluminar 
salts,  thè  subséquent  décomposition  of  which,  by  alkaline  or 
earthy  carbonates,  wiU  yield  oxide  of  iron  and  alumina  ;  the 
absence  of  the  lattet  élément  serves  perhaps  to  characterize  the 
iion-ores  of  organic  origin.t  In  this  way  the  deposits  of  emery, 
•  Quar.  Jour.  Oeol.  goc.,  Vol.  V.  p..25. 


îiKiu  ii!ls»i3''a    .  ..Va,»V'^^^  rf4t*«**^'' 


14 


ON  SOME  POINTS  IN  CHEMICAL  GEOLOOY. 


[H. 


"■% 


which  is  a  mixture  of  ciystallized  alùmina  with.  oxide  of  iion, 
hâve  doubtleas  been  fbnued. 

Waters  déficient  in  organio  mattera  may  remove  soda,  limé, 
and  magnesia  from  sédiments,  and  leave  the  granitic  éléments 
intermingled  with  qxide  of  iron  ;  while  on  the  other  hand,  by 
the  admixture  of  organic  mateiifils,  the  whole  of  the  iron  may 
be  removed  firom  strata  which  will  stiÛ  retain  the  lime  and  soda 
ftecessary  for  the  formation  of  basic  feldspars.  The  feot  that 
bicarbonate  of  n^agnesia  is  muçh  more  soluble  than  bicarbonate 
of  lime,  is  alao  to  be  takeni  into  account  in  considering  thèse 
reactions. 

The  study  of  the  chêmistiy  of  minerai  waters,  in  connection 
with  that  of  sed^mei^ry  rocks,  shows  us  that  the  resuit  of 
procésses  continually  going  on  in  nature  is  to  divide  the  silicO- 
argillaceous  rocks  into  two  great  classes  (mentioned  on  page 
3),  —  the  on^  c)iaracterized  by  an  excess  of  silica,  by  the  pré- 
dominance of  potash,  and  by  the  small  amounts  of  lime,  mag- 
nesia and  soda,  and  represented  by  the  granités  and  trachytes  ; 
while  in  the  other  class  silica  and  potash  are  léss  abundant, 
and  soda,  lime  and  magnesia  prevail,  giving  rise  to  pyroxenes 
and  triclinic  feldspars.  The  metamorphisA  and  displacemeïit 
of  such  sédiments  may  thus  enable  us  to  explain  the  ongin  of 
the  "différent  varieties  of  plutonic  rocks  without  calling  to  our 
aid  the  éjections  of  the  central  fire.  . 


Mr.  Babbage  *  has  shown  thàfc  the  horizons  or  surfaces  of 
equal  température  in  the  earth's  crust  must  rise  and  fall,  as  a 
conséquence  of  the  accumulation  of  sédiment  in  some  parts 
and  its  removal  from  others,  producing  thereby  expansion  and 
contraction  in  the  materials  of  the  crust,  and'  thus  giving  rise 
to  graduai  and  wide-spread  vertical  movements.     Sir  John  Her- 


bauxite,  serves  to  show  an  intimate  relation  between  the  origin  of  thèse  two 
bases  in  an  uncombined  state.  Hydrous  alumina,  gibbeite,  is  moreover  found 
incru8tinglinionite,and  the  existence  of  compounds  lilce  mellite  and  pigotite,  in 
which  alumina  is'^ited  to  oiganio  acids,  shows  that  this  base  may,  under  cer- 
tain conditions,  be  i^t  free  in  a  soluble  condition. 
_^Ou^e  Wple  ôf  Sompis,  Proa  g«d.  Skw,  Vd.  H.  ^1%, 


iSi^jR«WiI^i* 


n.]  OIT  SOMB  POINTS  IN  CHEMICAL  OEOLOOT.  15 

schel*  subsequently  showed  thàt,  aa  a  resuit  of  the  internai 
beat  thu8  retained  by  accumulated  strata,  sédiments  deeply 
enough  bnned  will  become  crystallized,  and  ultimately  be  raised,     i^ 
^th  theur  mcluded  water,  to  the  melting-point.     From  thé     ^ 
chenucal  réactions  at  this  elevated  température  gases  and  vapc^ré 
wiU  be  cvolved,  and  earthquakes  and  volcanic  éruptions  Will 
resuit.    At  the  same  time  the  disturbance  of  the  equilibrium 
of  pressure  conséquent  upon  the  transfer  of  sédiments,  while 
the  yielding  surface  reposes  upon  a  mass  of  matter  partir  liquid 
and  prtly  soUd,  will  enàble  us  to  explain  the  phenomena  of 
élévation  and  subsidence. 

According,  then,  to  Sir  John  Herschel's  view,  ail  volcanic 
phenomena  bave  their  source  in  sedimentary  deposits  ;  and  this 
ingemous  hypothesis,  which  is  a  necessàry  conséquence  of  a. 
high  central  température,  explains  in  a  most  satisfactory  man-   ' 
ner  the  dynamical  phenomena  of  volcanoes,  and  many  other 
obscure  points  in  their  histoiy,  as,  for  instance,  the  indepen- 
dent  action  of  adjaceijt  volcanic  vents,  and  the  Varying  nature 
of  their  ejected  prpdîrct8.t    Not  only  are  the  lavas  of  différent 
volcanoes  ve^j^lhlike,  but  those  of  the  same  crater  vary  at  dif- 
ferentt^;  the  same  is  tme  of  the  gaseous  matters,  hydro- 
chlorlg;  hydrosulphuric,  and  carbonic  acids.     As  the  ascending 
beat  penetmt^  saliferous  strata,  we  shall  bave  hydrochloric        ' 
acid,  from  the  décomposition  of  sea-salt  by  silica  in  the  présence 
of  water  ;  whde  gypsum  and  other  sulphates,  by  a  similar  re- 
action, would  lose  their  sulphur  in  the  form  of  sulphurous  acid 
and  oxygen.    The  intervention  of  organic  matters,  either  by 
direct  contact  or  by  giving  rise  to  reducing  gases,  would  coi 
vert  the  sulphates  into  sulphur^ts,  which  would  yield  sulphu- 
.  retted  hydrogen  when  decomposed  by  water  and  silica  or  by  car- 
bomc  acid  ;  the  latter  being  the  resuit  of  the  action  of  siUca 
upon  earthy  carbonates.    We  conceive  the  ammonia  so  often 
^^  found  among  the  products  of  volcanoes  to  be  evolved  from  the 
heated  strate,  where  it  existe  in  part  as  ready-fonned  ammonia 
(Which  is  absorbed  from  air  and  water,  and  pertinaciously  le- 


4^a^^i;:^^.^^^^^pp-^^^«^ 


T'ôiTfiirUier  development  of  thl«  theory,  see  Essaya  Vl.aSvU 


16 


OK  nota  paorni  dî  chemcai,  otohoont,        pt 


tained  by  «rgillaoeoiu  sédiment*)»  uid  is  in  part  fomed  by  tb» 
action  of  beat  xtpon  taatiaed  otgùûc  nurtter  présent  in  tbeiM» 
strata,  as  almdy  maint*in«d  by  Bisôhofc»  Nor  can  we  hesi- 
tate  to  accept  this  autbor's  tbeoiy  of  the  formation  of  boracio 
acid  from  tbe  decompofMon  of  borates  by  beat  and  aqueou» 
vapor.t 

•       ,        •  •  .  * 

The  metamorphism  of  sédiments  in  aitti,  tbeir  di«idacement 
in  a  pasty  condition  fiiom  igneo^iqueous  fusion  aa  plutonio 
,  rocks,  and  tbeir  éjection  as  lavas,  with  attendant  gases  and 
vapors  are,  then,  ail  résulta  of  the  same  cause,  and  dépend 
upon  the  différences  in  the  chemical  composition  of  the  sédi- 
ments, the  température,  and  tbe  depth  to  which  they  are  buried  : 
whilfi  the  unstratified  «ucleus  of  the  earth,  which  is  doubtlesa 
anhydrous,  and,  according  to  the  calcul«^tions  of  Meesra.  Hop- 
kins  and  Hennessey,  probably  soUd  to  a  great  depth,  intervenes 
in  the  phenomena  under  considération  only  as  a  source  of 
heat.j:  «^ 

•  Lehrbnch  de»  Géologie,  VoL  II.  pp.  116-122. 

+  IbiA,  Vol.  I.  p.  66»4 

t  Tho  notion  that  volcanio  phenomena  hâve  their  seat  fai  the  gedimentary 
formaAJbns  of  the  earth's  crust,  and  are  dépendent  upon  the  combustion  of 
OTgBtQc  mattera,  is,  as  Humboldt  remarks,  one  which  belonga.to  the  Infancy 
of  geognosy.   (Cosmos»  VoL  V.  p.  448.  Otté's  translation.)    In  1884,  Christian 
Keferetein  pnblished  his  Naturgeschichte  des  Erdkorpers,  in  which  he  main- 
tains  that  ail  crystalline  nOn-stratifled  rocks,  tnm  granité  to  lava,  are  products 
of  the  transformation  jp^sedimentary  strata,  In  part  very  récent,  and  thaï 
there  iM  no  well-defined^e  to  be  drawn  between  neptunian  and  volcanic  rocks^ 
since  they  pass  into  eacVother...  Volcanio  phenomena,  according.  to  him,  hava 
their  origin,  not  in  an  igneous  ilnid  centre,  nor  an  oxidizing  metsllic  nuclens, 
but  in  known  sedimentary  formations,  where  they  are  the  resuit  of  a  peculiar 
prooess  of  fermentation,  which  orystallises  and  arranges  in  new  forms  the  ele- 
mmte  of  the  sedimentary  strata,  with  évolution  of  heat  as  an  accompaniment 
of  the  chemical  process.    (Natuigeschlohte,  VoL  L  p.  109  ;  also  BulL  Soc 
OéoL  de  France  (1),  VoL  VIL  p.  197.) 
V     Thèse  remarkable  conohnions  were  tmknown  to  me  at  the  time  of  writing 
this  paper,  and  seem  indeed  to  hava  been  entinly  overlooked  by  geological 
wrlters  ;  they  are,  as  will  be  seen,  in  many  respects  an  anticipation  of  the 
views  of  Herschel  and  my  own  ;  althongh  In  rejecting  the  influence  of  an 
Incandescent  nucleus  as  a  source  of  heat,  he  has,  as  I  conceive,  ezduded  the 
exciting  cause  of  that  ohemioal  change,  which  he  has  not  inaptly  described  as 
a  process  of  fermentation,  and  which  is  the  source  of  ail  volcanic  and  plutonio 
_j^henOmena.   Seein  this. connection  ïlHayaL  and  VIL  of  tiwpnsent 


--f 


?.,'!'  ,,^ 


■*v^^r  f-"-,  ■•  "^A'^'af'fii^l^ 


..r-v'^. 


n.]  ON  SOME  POINTS  IN  CHEMICAL'  GEOLOGYi  17 

The  volcanic  phenoinen«,of  the  présent  day  appear,  so  forae 
ï  am  aware  to  be  confined  to  regiona  coveied  by  ^  more  Z 
cent  secondary  and  tertiary  deposits.  which  we  may  suppose 
the  centml  heat  to  be  stiU  penetrating  (as  shown  by  Mr  Tl 
bage),  a  process  which  haa  long  since  ceased  in  the  palœozoic 
régions.    Both  normal  metamorphism  and  volcanic  action  are 
generaUy  connected  with  élévations  and  foldings  of  the  earthl, 
crust^  ail  of  which  phenomena  we  conceive  to  hâve  a  common 
cause  and  to  dépend  upon  the  accumulatipn  of  sédiments  and 
the  subsidence  conséquent  thereon,  as  maîntained  by  Sir.  James 
Hallmhistheoryofmountains.* 


""  *      1 

'il 


m^ufrpTTj^r'  ""  """  "'  '^•*"  9--  '>»•'■  ^-  ■»! 


';fi'ac        -■^^st^H'  ^ifcJrV-.  JJ/ 


J^  '      A'i^■^ 


l  ' 


THE  CHEMISTRY  ot  METAMORPHIC 

ROC^S. 


Thia  paper  waii  read  before  the  DnbUn  Geological  Society,  AprU  10, 1868,  publUhed 
In  the  Dublin  Quarterly  Jourqol  for^^uly,  and  i«print«d  in  tlie  Canadlan  Naturalist 
ft>r  the  sanie  year.  The  notion*  ej^preased  in  the  flnt  paniinaph  aa  to  the  exist- 
ence of  cryatalline  atrata  of  ail  geological  âges,  the  résulta  ol^  a  subaequent  altération  i 
flf  palKozolu,  ueieozolc,  and  even  of  cenozoic  sédiments,  are  in  strict  accordance  writh 
tliose  which  were  then  (and  are  even  now)  maintained  by  most  of  the  auth'orities  In 
geology  ;  and  at  that  time  had  scarcely  been  questioned.  Hence  it  is  that  the  rocks 
of  what  are  heie  deaignated  ttie  tliird  and  fourth  séries  were,  in  conformity  wlth  the 
conclusions  generolly  accet^ted,  referre;^  to  the  palseozoic  âge.  It  will,  however,  be 
seen  that  I  had  at  that  time  no  doubt  that  the  roclts  of  the  third  (or  Qreen  Mountain) 
séries,  then  regarded  as  altered  Lower  Silurian,  were,  as  Macfarhtne  had  already  main-' 
tained,  the  équivalents  of  a  part  at  least  of  the  Primitive  HUite  or  Urachiefer  formation 
of  Norway.  He,  as  is  hère  stated,  supposed  the  Huronian  to  represent  another  part 
of  the  same  formation  ;  while  Bigsby  soon  after  expfessed  the  opinion  that  the  Huro- 
Hian  and  the  Urschiefer  are  the  same.  My  own  eïtended  studies  of  thèse  i-ocks  in  the 
Oreen  Mountains,  in  New  Brunswick,  and  on  Lakes  Superior  pnd  Huron,  hâve  since 
convinced  me  that  this  view  is  correct,  and  that  the  Green  Mountain  séries  is  repr»- 
sented  in  the  crystallino  strata  around  the  great  lakes  Just  mentloned  ;  and,  moreover, 
that  both  thls  séries  and  the  crystalline  rocks  of  the  fourth  or  White  Mountain  séries 
exister  in  their  présent  crystalline  form  before  the  déposition  of  the  oldest  Cambrian 
sédiments.  Tho  ftirther  hUtory  of  thèse  crystalline  séries  wiU  be  found  in  an  Essay 
on  the  Oeognoâl!^  of  the  Appalachians  (XIII.  of  the  présent  volume),  and  in  lu 
Appendlx.  In  this  connection  the  reader  Is  aiso  ireferred  to  portions  of  those  on 
GraniUo  Rocks  (XI.),  on  Alpine  Geology  (XIV.),  and  to  the  third  part  of  that  on  Cam;, 
brian  and  Silurian  (XV.).    8ee  also  a  note  to  the  présent  paper  (page  83). 

Thèse  conclusions  carry  back  the  origin  of  thèse  two  séries  of  crystalline  rocks 
to  a  m'uch  more  remote  period  in  geological  history  than  was  formerly  8upi>o»ed  ;  but 
the  Chemical  principles  laid  down  in  thU  paper  I  belleve  to  be  still  true,  and  of 
gênerai  application,  and  for  this  reasou  it  is  reprinted  with  the  omission  of  a  few 
sentences  which,  by  their  référence  to  the  supposed  paleeoiolc  âge  of  the  crystalline 
rocks  above  referred  to,  raight  serve  to  roislead  the  reader. 

'  Whlle  retaining  the  original  tiOe,  I  however  regard  the  name  of  metamorpMe  rockt, 
as  applied  to  crystalline  strata,  an  unfortunate  one,  which  it  would  be  well  to  banish 
trom  the  science  of  geology.  Although  it  is  not  to  be  questioned  that  local  and  excep- 
tlonal  agencles,  apparently  hydrothermal,  hâve  occasionally  glVen  rise  to  crystalline 
sllicated  minerallh  in  palseozolc  and  even  in  morerecent  sédiments,  and  niay  thus  help 


^ii^as!ai&4t<„  ja  i»i  : 


m/k". 


55?WfW.;''«*'^ï;'9^'Ç^*)W' 


i(^b.Â^btë^Wï^  ^ 


K,jMliat? 


%S|f^ 


/-    ' 


1. 


THE  CHEJkWSTRY  Q»  METAMORPHIC  BOCKS. 


lent,  of  fommtlon.  eUevTere  kn^w^  to?!t  "'  "*."!..'"  *^'  '»««K"l'hloal  equlva- 

depcltlon.  uhdei^ne  certain  molSLm^i,..'''K"''''  ''""»'"«»■  •">««  their 
dl<Mene«U)whlchh*vechInStheï^^^^^  *"'*'"'  •*">  »*""^ 

iB  to  a  greater  or  leM  exteiUtrUe  of  .2^?     ..   '^*  '  ""'  •»"•«"'"«  «'  «>e  Mm.  tort 

the_„.n.e  or  ._eta.on.r  ^VL^h^rnï^v-^^^^^^^^ 


;>.?-• 


the  name  of  metamonihic.  TW» 
ijmonyroe  for  ail  crytt  Ulins  stiat 
^rofoiind  epigenio  change  (pgeudo 
aiid  to  crystaliine  eruptive  rock» 
"  régional  metaraorphlsm  la  {>»  "' 
tlon  £May  XUX.  «nd  Ita  Appeni 


ùM  not  only  eome  to  be  fiinilllarly  UMd  aa  a 

BB«»-  but  U  aawoiated  with  tho  notion  of  a 

'"indeJ  alike  to  uu«ryiitalllue  iettlinenU 

been  embodiod  In  theaaaertion  that 

-  grand  «cale."    BeeJn  tUl*  coimeo- 


crysteUme  stra  died  roclcB  w«ré  included  under  the  common  des- 

his  studiea  to  descriptions  of  the  various  speciea  of  rocks  S 

But  With  the  progïess  of  geologic^l  science  a  new  problém  S 
presented  to  hia  investigation,     ^^ile  paleontolo^  C^wn 
that  the  fossils  of  each  formation  fiimish  a  ffuid«  TT 
"l^^T^  position;  it  has  hT^^i^  ^X^ 
stmta  of  ail  âges,  up  >  the  tertiary  inclusive,  inay  undeZ 
mh  changes  as  to  oblitera4e  the  direct  évidentes  of  orgISc 
We;  and  to  gxve  tothesedunents  the  minemlogîcal  chaTt^rs 
once  assigned  to  priml6ve  rocks.*    The  ouesCZ^ 
whether  in  the  ahsenceof  organe  reif^^^^^^^^^ 
.mdencMhere  .x^ts  any  means  of  determininî"^ZÏ 
fi""  r  oS'  '^/  ^  Ti  ""^  ofc^lli  js. 

he  ^  of  unaltered  sedimente  it  woul/be  dfffi^rrarrive 

M^aiyses  ,  but  m  the  same-  rocks,  when  alteied,  the  crystdline 
minerais  which  are  fonned,  being  definite  in  thêir  com^S 
and  varying  with  the  chemical  constitution  of  làe  S^' 


ilJii,|È£(SJsi'  l'îSn'.iisi*^^     !'        A„^j.    itt  -"^ 


?  ; 


20 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  METAMORPHIC   ROCKS. 


[IIL 


mayperhaps  tô  a  certain  extent  become  tortfië  geoîégîst  Avhafc 
organic  remains  are  in  the  unaltered  rocks,  r— a  guide  to  the 
geological  âge  and  succession.  / 

Jt  was  whilp  engaged  in  the  investigatiQa  of  metamorphic 
rocks  of  varioujB  âges  in  North  America,  thàt  this  problem  sug- 
gested  ifeelf  ;  and  I  hâve  endeavored  fr(im  chemical  considéra- 
tions, conjoined  with  multiplied  jobselrations,  tô  attempt  its 
solution.  In  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geoibgical  Society 
of  London  for  1859  (Essay  .il  of  the  présent  volume)  will  be 
found  the  germs  of  tbe  îdeas  on  this  subject,  which  I  shall 
endeavor  to  explain  in  the  présent  paper.  It  cannot  be  doubted 
that  in  the  earlier  periods  of  the  world's  history,  chemical  forces 
of  certain  kinds  were  inuch  more  active  than  at  the  présent 
day.  Thus  the  décomposition  of  earthy  and  aUcaline  silicates, 
under  the  combined  influences  of  water  and  carbonic  acid, 
would  be  greater  when  this  acid  was  more  abundant  in  the 
atmosphère,  and  when  the  température  was  probably  higher 
(page  2).  ÏTie  larger  amounts  of  alkaline  and  earthy  carbone 
ates  then  carried  to  the  sea  from  the  décomposition  of  thesô 
silicates  would  furnish  a  greater  amount  of  calcareous  matter 
to  the  sédiments  ;  and  the  chemical  effects  of  végétation,  both 
on  the  soil  and  on  the  atmosphère,  must  bave  been  greater 
during  the  carboniferous  period,  for  example,  than  at  présent. 
In  the  spontaneous  décomposition  of  feldspars,  which  may  be 
desoribed  as  siUcates  of  alumina  combined  with  silicates  of 
potash,  soda  and  lime,  tJi^e  latter  bases  are  remoyed,  together 
with  a  portion  of  silica  ;  and  there  remains,  as  the  final  resuit 
of  the  process,  a  hydftus  silicate  of  alumina,  which  constitutes 
kaolin  or  clay.  This  change  is  favored  by  mechanical' division  ; 
and  Daubrée  bas  shown  that  by  the  prolonged  attrition  of  frag- 
ments ^  granité  under  water,  the  softer  and  readily  fcleavable 
feldspar  is  in  great  part  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder,  while 
the  uncleï^rable  grains  o^  quartz  are  only  rounded,  and  form  a 
readilyitubsiding  sand  j  the  water  at  the  same  time  dissolving 
from  the  feldspar  a  certain  portion  of  silica  and  of  alkali.  It  haa 
been  repeatedlt,  observed,  where  potash  and  sodarfeldspars  $re 
..fl^oeiatêdrthai  the^Jli»tter  ig  muQkthe  more  readj^  decompcjBed, 


m 


,ft 


i^t 


'  V,  iji^.,,  A,  U'^^^û  ig^â-n^mj. 


"fjTB-jn^V-^^^^  ^'  ( 


^^^\^    4™^  CHEMISTRY  OF  METAMORPHIC  ROCKS.  21 

orthoclase  is  unaltered.     The  resuit  of  combined  ehemical  Md 
mechamcal  agencies  acting  upon  rocks  which  contain  quartz 
with  orthocl^e  and  a  soda-feldspar  such  as  albite  or  IgocIaÎ 
would  thus  be  a  sand,  made  up  chiefly  of  quartz  anTpoth 
feldspar  and  afinely  divided  and  suspended  clay,  consisSor 
the  niost  part  of  kaolin  and  of  partially  decomposed  sIda-Ld 
spar,  mingled  watb  some  of  the  smaller  particles  of  orthockse 
and  of  quartz.     With  this  sédiment  wilî  also  be  i«.luded  the 
oxxde  of  iron,  and  the  earthy  carbonates  set  free  by  the  sub-aerial 
décomposition  of  silicates  like  py„,xene  and  the  anorthic  feW 
spars  or  fomed  by  the  action  of  the  carbonate  of  soda  derived 
s"r     T^r  *^%^r-"^^  -^  *te  mgnesi,-salts  :' 
beflundinlb     t       '  f .  ^o^Wende  and  pyroxene  wiU  also 

one  wh  r,  1  '  ''^'"''^*-  ^^'^  P^««««  '«  «-idently  the 
one  which  must  go  on  in  the  wearing  away  of  rocks  by  aqueous 
^agency.  and  explains  the  fact  that  whUe  quartz,  or  an  excess  of 
combmed  silica,  is  for  tU  most  part  wanting  in  rocks  which 
contain  a  large  proportion  of  alumina,  it  is  generally  abundant 
in  those  rocks  m  whi<!h  potosh-feldspar  prédominâtes. 

feo  long  as  this  décomposition  of  alkaliferous  sUicates  is  sub- 
aenal,  the  sdica  and  alkali  are  both  removed  in  a  soluble  form 
The  process  is  often,  however,  submarine  or  subterranean,  tak- 
ing  place  m  buried  sédiments  which  are  mingled  with  carbon- 
ates of  lime  and  magnesia.     In  such  cases  the  silicate  of  soda 
set  free  reacts  either  with  thèse  earthy  carbonates/or  with  the 
corresponding  chlorides  of  sea-water,  and  forms  in  either  event 
a  soluble  soda-salt.  and  insoluble  silicates  of  lime  and  magnesia 
which  take  the  place  of  the  removed  silicate  of  soda     The 
évidence  of  such  a  continued  reaction  between  alkaliferous 
silicates  and  earthy  carbonates  is  8*en  in  the  lai«e  amounts  of 
carbonate   of  soda,  with   but  little  silica,  which  infiltrating 
waters  constantly  remove  from  ai^Uaceous  strata  ;  thus  giving 
nse  to  alkalme  ^rmgs  end  te  natron-lakes.     In  thèse  watZ 
l!^t  tetl         ,        ''t  »^*ly  P«dominates,  sometimes 


tha  f^.j  ti.^     j  T7. i^»»»".     iiUB  18  que  not  oniy  to 

-^th*  li^i  that^oda-feldspais  are  more  readily  decomposed  èaiT 


tf^ie,!»   t^^i 


.».. 


..t;«j! 


#. 


fflf" 


■":   /?'. 


k.- 


22 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  MËTAMOBPHIC  ROCKS. 


[IIL 


orthoclaae,  but  to  the  well-known  power  of  argillaceous  sédi- 
ments to  abstract  frpm  vater  the  potash-salts  which  it  already 
holda  in  solution.  Thus  vrhen  a  solution  of  silicate,  carbonate,  , 
siilphate  or  chloride  of  potassium  is  filtered  through  common 
earth,  the  potash  is  taken  up,  and  replaced  by  lime,  magnesia^ 
or'  soda,  by  a  double  décomposition  between  the  soluble  potash- 
salt  and  the  insoluble  silicates  or  carbonates  of  the  latter  bases. 
Soils,  in  like  'manner,  remove  from  intiltrating  waters,  ammonia, 
and  phosphoric  and  silicic  acids,  the  bases  which  were  in  combi- 
nation  with  thèse  being  converted  into  carbonates.  The  drain- 
age-water  of  soils,  like  that  of  most  minerai  springs,  contains 
only  carbonates,  chlorides  and  sulphates  of  lime,  magnesia  and 
soda';  the  ammonia,  potash,  phosphoric  and  silicic  acids  being 
retained  by  the  soil. 

The  éléments  which  the  earth  retains  or  extracts  from  waters 
are  precisely  those  which  are  removed  from  it  by  growing 
plant».  Thèse,  by  their  décomposition  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions, yield  their  minerai  matters  again  to  the  aoil  ;  but  when 
decay  takes  place  in  water,  thèse  éléments  become  dissolved, 
and  hence  the  waters  from  peat-bogs  and  marshes  contain 
large  amounts  of  potash  and  silica  in  solution,  which  are  carried 
to  the  sea,  there  to  be  separated,  —  the  silica  by  protophytes, 
and  the  potash  by  algœ,  which  latter,  decaying  on  the  shore, 
or  in  the  ooze  at  the  bottom,  restore  the  alkali  to  the  earth. 
The  conditions  under  which  the  végétation  of  the  coal-formation 
grew  and  was  preserved  being  similar  to  those  of  peat,  the 
soils  became  «xhausted  of  potash,  and  are  seen  in  thé  iire-clays 
of  the  carboniferous  period. 

Another  eifect  of  végétation  on  sédiments  is  due  to  the  le- 
ducing  or  deoxidiâng  agency  of  the  organic  matters  from  its 
decay.  The^,  as  is  well  known,  reduce  the  peroxide  of  iron 
to  a  soluble  protoxide,  and  remove  it  from  the  soil,  to  be 
afterwaHds  deposited  in  the  forma  of  iron-ochre  and  iron-ores, 
which  by  subséquent  «dleration  become  hard,«-crystalline  and 
insoluble.  Thus,  through  the  agency  of  végétation,  is  the  iron- 
oxide  of  the  sédiments  withdrawn  fttom  the  terrestriid  circula- 
-tiofr  Î^Hid  it  ii  evidMit  Ûuà  ttu»  pR)perti^-<rf^4hk»^^jh»meHt= 


%éj«,4»  ,  ',->.J»  ,\if,l  \»  „»  !  Jâî^fS  iV-Jj'^  ,'M..\  ^.  MMi 


^«ÈÏW^ 


.     '^V~i 


itâ^t^èianaa 


4 


r-ÎP'^^if1*w^"^W 


ff 


f--  -.j.^' 


'If'»»      \*^'->-!fl% 


ni.]  THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  METAMOEPHIC  ROCKS.  *23 

diffosed  in  the  more  lecent  sédiments  must  be  much  le»  than 
ter  is  further  shown  m  the  formation  of  metÉlic  su^hurets: 

fonn  the  heavy  metals,  copppr,  lead  and  zinc,  which,  with  iron 
appear  to  hâve  been  in  solution  in  the  waters  of  ^riy  ti^es 
but  are  now  by  this  means  also  abstracted  from  the  cii.ulatTo„ 
and  accumukted  inbeds  and  fahlbands,  or  %  a  subséquent 
proc^  hâve  been  redissolved  and  deposited  iù  veins.^  li 
andogies  lead  us  to  the  conclusion  that  the  primeval  condition 
of  the  metals  and  of  «Iphur,  was,  like  that  of  carbon,  one  of 

tltrûc:^!*^*  '''-'''''  ^'  '-  ^-  ^^«  -^«  -ei-  of 

The  source  of  the  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia  in  sedi- 

mentary  strata  is  twofold:-^,  the  decompo^tion  of  sTu- 

cates  contaimng  thèse  bases,  such  as  anorthic  feldspars  and 

fomed  by  the  décomposition  of  feldspars,  upon  the  chlorides  of 
calcium  and  magnésium  originally  preaent  in  sea-water;  which 
hâve  thus  m  the  course  of  âges,  been  in  great  part  replaced  by 
cMonde  of  sodiiyn.  The  clay,  or  aluminous  sUicate  which  h^ 
been  depnved  of  its  alkali,  is  thus  a*  once  a  measure  of  the 
carbonic  acid  removed  from  the  air,  of  the  carbonates  of  lime 
and  magnesia  precipitated,  and  of  the  amoidl  of  chloride  of 
sodium  added  to  the  waters  of  the  primeval  océan. 
^    The  coarsersediments,  in  which  quartz  and  brthoclase  prevail, 

remove  from  them  the  soda,  lime  and  magnesia  wS^they 
contam;  and,  if  organic  matters  intervene,  the  qxide  of  iron  • 
eaving  at  last  little  more  than  silica,  alumina  Ife  potash^- 
the  éléments  of  granite,  trachyte,  gneiss  and  mi««cïd«t.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  finer  maris  and  clays,  resisting  the  pénétra. 

oxide  of  iron;  Sid  conteining  «n  exceçs  of  alumina,  w^th  a  . 
smaU  amount  of  sUica,  wiU,  by  their  metemorphism,  rive  rise 
0  boBic  kme-feldspar.  and  soda-feldspars.  and  7o  p^r!  ,T. 
hoi.ableude,--.the  éléments  of  diorites  and  doleriS^  ^^"^ 


if- 


V» 


.^ 


.Vf«    ..«^.\»     ■. 


24 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OÉ  METAMORPHIO  ROCKS. 


[III. 


way  the  opération  of  the  chemical  and  mechanical  causes 
which  we  hâve  traced  naturally  divides  ail  the  crystalline 
silico-aluminous  rocks  of  the  earth's  crust  into  two  types. 
Thèse  corrœpond  to  the  two  classes  of  igneous  rocks,  distin- 
guished  first  by  Professor  Phillips,  and  suhsequently  by  Duro- 
cher  and  by  Buhsèp,  aa  derived  from  two  distinct  magmaa 
which  thèse  geologists  iiaagine  to  exist  beneath  the  solid  crust, 
and  which  the  latter  denominates  the  trachytic  and  pyroxenic 
types.  J  hâve  however  elsewhere  ëndeavored  to  show  that  ail 
intrusive  or  exotic  rocks  are  probably  nothing  more  than  al- 
tereJ'and  displaced  sédiments,  and  hâve  thus  their  source  with- 
in  the  lovrer  portions  of  the  stratified  crust,  and  not  beneath  it 
(pages  4,  8  and  14).     \  ,  ~t 

It  may  be  well  in  this  place  to  make  a  few  observations"  on 
the  chemical  conditions  of  rock-metamorphism.  I  accept  in 
its  widest  sensé  the  view  of  Hutton  and  Boue,  that  ail  the 
crystalline  stratified  rocks  bave  been  produced  by  the  altération 
of ymechanical  and  chemical  sédiments.  The  conversion  of 
tKese  into  dafinite  minerai  species  bas  bee»  effected  in  two 
ways  :  first,  by  molecvdar  changes,  that  is  to  say,  by  crystalli- 
zation,  and  a  rearrangement  of  particles;  and,  secondly,  by 
chemical  reactions  between  the  éléments  of  the  sédiments. 
Pseudomorphism,  which  is  the  change  of  one  minerai  species 
into  another  by  the  introduction  or  the  élimination  of  some 
élément  or  éléments,  présupposes  metamorphism  ;  since  only 
dofinite  minerai  species  can  be  the  subjects  of  this  process. 
To  confound  metamorphism  with  pseudomorphism,  as  Bis- 
chof,  and  others  sifter.him,  bave  done,  is  therefore  an  error. 
It  may  be  further  remarked,  that,  although  certain  pseudo- 
morphic  changes  may  take  place  in  some  minerai  species,  in 
veins,  and  near  to  the  surface,  the  altération  of  great  masses 
of  silicated  rocks  by  such  a  process  is  as  yet  an  unproved 
hypothesis.* 

The  cases  of  local  metamorphism  in  proximity  to  intrusive 
rocks  go  far  to  show,  in  opposition  to  the  views  of  certain 
geologists,  that  beat  bas  been  one  of  the  necessary  conditions 


p 


^»i3«rfinther  on  tfate^salijeot  EsBvy^XHI^aad  itri 


fh. 


:W 


m.]         .THE  CHEMI8TRY  OF •  META^RPHIC  BOCKS. 


25 


of  ^  change     The  source  of  this  has  been  geneh^Uy  Bupposed 

ascending  heat,  Namnann  has  objected  that  the  inferior  strata 
m  some  cases  escape  change,  and  that,  in  descending,  a.certain 
pkne  lumte  the  metamoiphism,  separating  the  alte  ed  strate 
above  ^H.  the  unaltered ,  ones  beneath,  there  being  no"p!     ' 
pa^n  ttransj  xon  between  the  t>,o.    This,  taken  in  connection 
with  theweU-known  fact  that  in  iça^ay  cases  the  intrusion  of  \ï 
^meous  rocks  causes  no  apparent  change  in  the  adjacent  unal- 
tered  sédiments  shows  that  heat  and  oioisture  are  not  the  onlv 
conàtxons  of  nletâmorphism. .    In  1857  I  showed  hjj^l 
^    ments  that   m  addition  to  thèse  conditions,  certain  chercal 
r^ente  nnght  be  necessary  ;  and  that  water  imp^gnated^lh 
dkahne  carbonates  and  silicates  would,  at  a  temp^tureTot 
•    above  that  of  212°  F.,  produce  chen^ical  reactions  among  I 
e^ments   of  many  sedimentary  rocks,  dissolving  silica,'and 
generatxng   vanous   silicates.*      Some  months  fubsequ  Jy 
Daubrée  found  that  in  the  présence  of  solutions  of  alkahn: 
adicates,    at  températures   above   700°  F.,   varions   silicious 
mmerals,   such  as   quartz,  feldspar  and  pyroxene,  could  b^ 

2^T^T         ^  température  would  combine  with  clay  to 
fon^  feldspar  and  mica.t     Thèse  observations  were  the  coi^ 

heated  alkàl^ne  waters  to  be  sufficient  to  effect  the  meta^ 
ph^mof  sédiments  by  th|it^o  modes  ahmdy  mentioned,  ^ 
namely,   by  molecula^  ch^ges  and  by  chemical    reac^ns 
FoUowing    upon    this,   Daubrée  ^bserved   that  the   thermal        ' 
alkahne  spnng  of  Plombières,  with  y»mperature  of  16o'T        ^ 
had  m  the  courte  of  centuries^ve^l  the  fonn^n  of 
^eohtes,  and  other  crystalline  fuicated  minerais,  am||  the       ." 
bncks  and  cément  of  the  old  Eoman  batha.    FromX  he 
was  led  to  suppose  that  the  metemorphism  of  great  régions 

ail  lî^r  ^^"^  ^-  "'  ^'"*°"'  "'y  7'  ^8*^7;  and  Philos.  Mag.  (4)  XV  68- 
ateo  Amer.  Jour.  Science  (8),  XXII.  and  XXV.  435.  ''  ' 

iJ..?;;;^,^,'"  ^^  ^•^«^•>  ^ov.  16.  im-,  1,0  BuU.  Sœ.  r^.    .. 


l- 


§ 


\     • 


•^ 


^*.<m 


l'âîlit  *?ti.      A  * . 


'X'"' 


n>. 


•W 


m^ 


THi 

1 


CHEMlâTItY  OF  METj^ORPi 


"W-" 


\ 


E0( 

.^ight  hâve  bèe;^  efifbted  by  liot(^|png8;T(^ich,  impe  aïo^g 
jèertain  Unes  of  dislm^^pin,  aiidl^Mbnce  8p«M(|^ng^  latomlly^ 
■   might^^ioduce  alteia^(^i|Lti  8tr&uc|S|ifr  to  thâ  surf^^.  while 
those  beneath .  wquM  Iq  gome  caBeat^  eaèÊB&  KchaSM^-     '  Thiii^i 
ingemoi;|)i,vJiypptbesis  ïa&yfjf^Tve  in  'p^é%e|^.l^^^^  ith#:, 

~  oui  by  Isaumann  ;  but  miil^t^' ^^^ 

instf^cés  of  loôal  n]fetimo^i9m^'lp»eeiàs? 
|equa^  tp-«xplain  thé'compiteto  ii^df'kliÂw 

_  cEimentary  rocks,  embracing  B^iy  h!un- 

r^uaîé  miles,  s  On  tbeotber  han4,  jàie  study 

l^istribution  of  minéial  spfi^  ^hows  that 

';(i|jilQ8e  actioÀ  in  metamorphism»!  ;tirst  pointed 

'^t^  fl^d;iKhoae  efficient  agency  DsLubiée  bas  sinc^jîjî  well  shown) 

e%re  conlj^ed  to  certain  sedimentary  deposits,  'raw  to  definite 

^ ^tratign^bicàl  horizons;  above  and  below  wbichlttline  waters 

'^    khplly  dlffeieUt  in  cbar^cter  are^lbund  impr^nating  tbe  strata. 

Ilbis  fact  seeni's  to  offer  a  simple  solution  of  tllà'  difficulty 

aàvaïiced  by  Nàumann,  and  a  complète  explanaltion  of  the 

,   theory  of  metamoïpKism  of  deeply  buried  strata  by^he  agency 

of  ascending  heat'.;  which  ia  opeiative  in^producing  'cheigicâl 

chances  ouly  in  those  strata  in  which  soluble  alkaline  salts 

are'  presentf  / 

.When  the  sedimentary  strata  hâve  beeii  rendered  crystalline 
by  metamorphism,  their  permeî^bility  to  water,  and  their  altera- 
biliity,  become  greatly  diminished  ;  and  it  is  only  when  again 
bfoken,  down  by  mechanical  agencies  to  the  condition  of  soils 
and  sédiments,  that  they  once  more  become  subject  to  the 
cbemical  changes  which  bave  just  been   described.     Hence, 

*  It  nhonld.  be  remembered  that  normaf  or  regioniil  metamorphism  is  in 
no  way  dépendent  upon  the  proximity  of  nnstratifled  or  igtieo||xockB,  which 

ihibolites, 
ciutom- 
ous. 

,  479,  480  ; 

of  the  rela- 

Repqrt  on  the 

same  Report, 

ipt»  touched 


are  rarely  présent  in  metamorphie  districts.    The  ophiol 
euphfttides,  diorites,  and  granités  of  snc^  réglons,  which 
ary  to,  regard  as  exotic  or  intrusive  rocks,  are  in  most>< 

+  See  Repq^^  the  G^ologicial  Survey  of  Cani 
also  Canadia^Mtfhlist,  Vol.  VII.  p.  262., ,  F<Jr 
tions  of  mi^jgppers  to  ^logical  formations, 
GeoUigy  of  ^WïSf;  1863;  p^5él,  and  also  Chap. 
on  Se<Umentary  and  Metamorphie  Bocks  ;  where 
m  the  -présent  paper  utTilsôaBMd  Ât  greitér  Tco) 


-iBrî^W*  ^!\>k\ 


-ii>A 


ii.(*vi^  i 


.1  H3fc.rf.v^. 


'f  f 


'   !  t 


Ml] 


THE   CHEMISTRY  OF  METAMORPHIC  EOCKS.     '   '    27 

the  mean  composition  ofthe  argiUaceotis  sédiments  6f  any 
geolo^eal  epoch,  or,  in  other  words,  the  proportion  between 
the  alkahes  and  the  alumina,  yriU  dépend  noï  only  upon  he 
âge  of  the  fonnation,  but  upon  the  number  of  times  wh  eh 

Which  they  hâve  remained  unmetamorphosed,  aVd  êxposed    o 
^     theacjion  of  infiltrating  watera.  Thp  nr JT    V 

^  ie  aWes  andL  alumina  in"  thlt^ot  ^at 
ments  of  any  gîven  formation  is  not  therefon,  in  direct  ï^lation 
to  its  âge  ;  but  xndicates  the  extent  to  which  thèse  sed7m  2 

-on.    ther  thing/'b^rg^ûa;  r^^^^^^^ 
port.onate  to  the  newness  of  the  fonnation,.it  is  e^S  tC 
the  Chemical  and  minemlogical  composition  ofdiirei.n?  Systems 
of  rocks  must  vary  with  their  antiquitj^  and  it  now  ^"^ab 
to^fiBd  m  then.  comparative  study  a  ^de  to  their  x^sp^lve 

Jîr^^rï  IJ}^'V^^^  '"••''""^  ^'^^'  ^««i  Chemical  pré- 
cipitâtes, hke  the  carbonates  and  silicates  of  lime  and  magnesk 

my  exist  with  similar  characters  in  the  geological  formations 
of  an^  âge;  not  only  forming  beds  apart,  but  mingled  with 
the  imperméable  siH^fe-ohuninous  sédiments  of  mechanical  ori- 
gin.  In^much  as  the  chemical  agencies  giving  rise  to  thèse 
cpmpounds  Were  then  most  active,  they  m^ay  t  expected  1 
greatest  abundance  in  the  rocks  of  the  earlier  periods  In  the 
case  of  the  perméable  and  more  highly-silicious  class  of  sedi- 

^^C^M^X:^^r  ^"  ''  ''-''' 

.-A        «mP™«'*'''''^*piinnti(>n  in  the  amounl  of  potash 
ÔM^rr^'t™"^  "^  tl.»»*^».ich  theycontain.    l  the 

«««ht  to  form  ortioclase  md  «l^itAth  the  whole  «Ith. 
ttZiS'"''!;! '•"'".'  f  *'  •"""  "iminUhes.'t'pLo*  of 
m»taT  thT^'^'T''  °"  '^  ■"«'^"'Phi«™  o?  the  eedi-- 


n>«Baç»dite.    WEile  the  oxWratio  between  the  «lumina 


%M 


.  \M 


,       ^"-'i-tî^ 


.^^,^ 


»;-  ;  ■ 


^ 


'^^  <f.xn^ 


28  THE  CHEMI8TEY  OF  MÇTAMORPHIC  ROCKS. 


A 


[IIL 


„nd  the  alkali  in  the  feldsp^re  just  named  is  3  : 1,  it  becomes 
6  :  Ijiu  niargarodite,  and  12  : 1  in  muacovite.  The  appear^nco 
of  thèse  micas  iri  a  rock  dénotes,  then,  a  diminution  in  the 
amount  of  alkali,  until  iri  some  strata  the  feldspar  almost 
entirely  disappears,  and  thb  rock  becomes  a  quartzose  mica- 
schist.  In  sédiments  stiU  further  deprived  of  alkali,  metamor- 
phism  gives  rise  to  schists  filled  with  crystals  pf  kyanite  or  «f 
andalusite,  which  are  simple  silicates  of  alumlna,  into  whose 
composition  alkalies  do  not  enter;  or  in  case  the  sedimpnt 
still  retains  oxide  of  iron,  staiirolite  and  iron-alumina  garhet 
take  their  place.     The  matrix  of  ail  of  thèse  minepls  is  gen- 

,  erally  a  quartzose  mic^schist.  The  last  T»rm  in  this  exhaustive 
process  appears  to  be  represented  by  the  disthene  and  pyrophyl- 
lite  rock»,  whiëh  occur  in  some  régions  of  crystalline  schists. 

In  the  secbnd  class  of  sédiments  we  hâve  alumina  in  excess, 
Vith  a  small  proportion  of  si^ca,  and  a  deficiency  of  alkalies, 
besides  a  variable  proportion  of  silicates  or  carbonates  of  lime, 
magnesia,  and  oxide  of  iron.  The  resuit  of  the  processes  already 
described  wiU  produce  a  graduai  diminution  in  the  amount 
of  alkali,  which  is  chiefly  soda.  So  long  as  this  prédominâtes, 
the  metamorphism  of  thèse  sédiments  will  give  rise  ç^^eldspars 
like  jpligoclase,  labradorite,  or  scapolite  (a  dimetric  feldspar)  ; 
but  in.  sédiments  where  lime  replaces  a  great  proportion  of  the 
soda,  theife  appears  a  tendency  to  the  production  of  denser 
silicates;  like  lime-aluminà  gamet,  and  epidote,  or  zoisite,  which 
replace  the  soda-lime  feldspars.  Minerais  like  the  chlorites, 
dichroite'and  chloritoid  are  formed  when  magnesia  and  iron 
replace  Ume.  In  t^  of  thèse  cases  the  excess  of  the  silicates 
of  earthy  protoxides  over  the  silicate  of  alumina  is  represented 
in  Wie  altered  strata  by  hornblende,  pyroxene,  divine,  and 
similar  species;  which  give  rise,  by  their  admixture^with  the 
double  aluminous  silicates,  to  diorite,  diabase,  euphotide,  eklo- 
gite,  and  similar  compoîmd  rocks.  ^  , 

In  eastem  North  America,  the  crystaUin^  strata,  <80  fifr  as 
yet  ^tudied,  may  be  conveniently  classed  in  five  groups,  corre- 
sponding  to  as  many  différent  geolo^cal  séries,  four  of  which 

^^^r&  be  considered  ia  tb»  pregent  papeR^^      —  ,     :=^^ 


N 


.A^i\.,,,         ^  *    .    ^ 


.•jkti    xA^Ovi^à^ 


.^^K^:iàMPù.*.^'^^^  s  rài^A.       C'» 


M" 


ï'*V  - 


4i 


III.]  THE  CHEMI8TRY  OP  METAMORPHIC  ROCKS. 


; 


29 

/:u  '"',\^"'«»"'»»  «y«tem  représenta  the"  oldest  known  rocks 
of  the  globe  and  is  supposed  to  be  the  équivalent  of  the  Primi- 
tive Gneiss  formation  of  Scandinavia,  and  that  of  the  Western 
Islands  of  Scot  and,  to  which  also  thé  name  of  Laurentian  is 
now  apphed.  It  has  been  investigated  in  Canada  along  a 
contmuous  outcrop  from  the  coast  of  Labrador  to  Lake  Su- 
penor,  and  also  over  a  considérable  area  in  northern  New 
xorK. 

II  Associated  withthissyètem  is  a  séries  of  strata  charac 
tenzed  by  a  great  development  of  anortholites,  of.  which  the 
hypersthemte  or  opalescent  feldspar-rock  of  Labrador  mav  be 
taken  as  a  type  Thèse  strata  overiie  the  Lahrentian  gneiss 
and  are  regarded  as  constituting  a  second  and  mo,^  Lent 
group  of  crystalhne  rocks,  to  which  the  name  of  thé  Labrador 
senes  may  be  provisionally  given.  [Since  ,called  Norian  • 
^e  note  to  page  31.]  From  évidence' «,cently  obt^ned.  Si^ 
William  Logan  conceives  it  probable  that  this  séries  i],  uncom- 

trom  it  by  a  long  mterval  of  time. 

ii^^r  ^"^  'îr'  ^^^.  P^^'"  ''  ^  ^*  ''"^^^  «^  crystalline  «chists 
Ihe  Green  Mountain  séries),  which  are  in  Canada  i^fer^d  to 
the  Québec  group,  an  inferior  part  of  the  Lower  Silurian  Sys- 
tem. They  appear  to  correspond  both  lithologically  and  sttati- 
fTn^air  'ft'  *''  ^^'^^'^^  ^"P  ''  the^rimit^ve  1:t 
and  to  be  there  represented  by  the  strata  in  the  vicinity  of 
of  Canar'-'"'-.  '  *''  ''"'"'^''-     ^^^  «uronian  séries 

zose  gïoup  df  the  same  Prmiitive  Slate  formation.*     It  consists 

^bT im^^'T?*!;  •  •  •  •     The  Huronian  séries  isa^ 
f^herUal^'  Btudied,  and  for^the  présent  will  not  te 


paU-SSl;ra7u^r^%'r/J°r  °^  ^"-^  ^^^-^ 


a  coin- 


f  t  It  will  be^n  abo va  that  I  hâve  indica{ed^««  gronps  of  crystalline  «ck,. 


§Ml. 


v^     . 


•//p,-,-"  .,< 


80 


-■-y  /^.W 


'■  •••••«.« 


HE  CHEMISTRY  0?  METAMOHPHIC  K0<ÎK8.  [III. 


^7', 


ÉÈÊe 


.  '"ïV.  In  the  fourth  place  are  to  be  noticed  thô  motamorphpsed 

etrata  of  Ûpper  ^i^umn  a|||A|||pi^  âge,  witli  which  may 

r^'  also  be  inchided*  those  oi^'ÎTOeGMb^Sferoii«*^y8téki  in  eastem 

^ew  England.     This  group  hf^P  as  y6t  beea  imperfectly  stud- 

jvHed,  but  présents  interesting  peculiarities. 

In  the  oldest  of  thèse,  tîxe  Laurentian  System,  the  first  olàss 
of  aluminous  rocks  takes  the  fonn  of  granitbid  gneiss,  wluch 
^  ia  often  coarse-grained  and  porphyritic.  Its  feldspar  is  fre- 
quently  a  nearly  pure  potash-orthoclase,  but  sometimes  con- 
tains  a  considérable  proportion  of  soda.  Mica  is  often  almost 
.  entijely  wanting,  and  is  ne  ver  abundant  -in  any  large  mass  of  . 
this Igneiss,  although  amall  banda  of  mica-schist  are  oçcasionally 
mefeiwith.-  Argillites,  which^rom  their  gênerai  predo^nance 
of  potash  and  silica  are  related  to  the  first  class  of  sfi^^ents, 
are,  so  far  as  known,  wanting  throughout  the  Laurentian 
ijtfe;  sériel^;  nor  ^s  any  rock  hère  met  with,  which  can  be  regarded 

J'  1  as  dérivent  f rom  the  metamorphism  of  sédiments  Uke  the  argil- 
lites of  mqye  modem  séries.  Chloritic  and  chiastolite-schists 
and  kyanite  are,  if  nqt  altogether  wanting,  extremely  rare  in 
the  llurentian  syatemlf.  The  alummous  sédiments  of  the 
second  class  are,  howevèr,  lepresentM  ûi  tl^is  system  Iqr  a 
diabase  i^»  up.^park  gtem  pyrôxenë  and  bluish  labradorite, 
often  assodl^d  wUh  a  red  aluminQ-fen»u8  gamet,  ^rfs  latter 
minerai  ^so  sometimes  constitutea  small .  beds;,  often  with 
quartz,  an(yjite||ionaUy  witlil-a  littjie  pmxene.  Thèse  basio 
âuminQus«mi«Brals  form,  hd|^ver,  but  In  insi^ïiificant  part 
of  the  mass  of  strata.  .Tfiis  ay^t^va,  fijrtheraÉfiàrk^le'bf 
the  small  amount  of  fenugiS|Prn*»tter  difFused  tloSJtigh  the 
tjc .  strata  ;  from  which  tlv^Éwter  part  çf,  the  iïon  seems  to.  hâve 

■^  been  removed,-  and  acx^piate^in  the  fonn  of  immense  beds 

"^^  ! '"¥  of  hematit^Und  magm^iron.  Beds  and  veins  of  crystalline 
plumbago  also  characteMze  this  séries,  and  are  generally  found 
with  the  Umestones,  which  are  herô  developed  to  an  extent 

■whiie  attempting  to  descrlbe  but  four;  the  flfth  belng  the  Horonian  ieries, 
•which  from  ita  close  resemblance  to  the  third  séries  (from  which  it  was  by 
Lbgan  regarded- a»  geologically  distinct),  w««  to  me  a  source  of  gre^it  per- 
plexity.    For  further  cousiderationa  touchiog  thia  question,  see  the  renarka 


^%' 


-^    0npj^ô  iSiT 


%    -• 


|%^.^..j..!,ig|<:      -.^v.. 


rfsTT>"'"  ' 


*: 


IIL]  THE  CHEMI8TBY  OF  MITTAMORPHIO  BOCKS.  31 

vetîT/''  TT  "^"^  ^«^«^tions,  and  are  associated  with 
vein8  of  crystaUme  apatite,  which  sometimes  attein  a  thlk 
neas  of  several   fn»»-      tk  ,•  «kwiiu  a  inicjc- 

as  vfif   «h!i-^         r.     ^  ««rpeiitines  of  thia  séries,  so  far 

r^inx  r:LrP  -?  -- »-• 

séries.»  ^^        ^*^®  aerpentmep   of  tlie 'third 

reJa^rLTt"\?  ^^"^'^  ««"««  is"  c Wterized,  as  aJreachr 

«.•H«w  ^       *"*'^'"*'  feldspars,  which  vary  in  comno^ 

t^^^ZZ^J-J^T".  Th.efeiaspa^s..:r 
other  timesTpl^H        .!^       T*^"''*  ^^^  admixture,  but  at 

inVHis  séries  and  othL^  ^.^"''  Pyroxenite  are  met  ..itlr 

H-ore   ofj:  Ztd  rstcTur:^^^^^^^ 

grayi«h.J|eenish,  or  bluish  in  coTnf^  J  ^^  "™  «""""^"y 
weathe  Aurfa(4      tZ      T  '  *°^  ^^"»«  ^^^^^  ««  the     . 

dor  ^X:::^ristif  iitTth^^^^^^    ^^  ^^- 

often  c^ntain  smaU  portlZ  «f  L  «««rtholites  ;  which 

aiid  more  rarely   epidote  ^-  f  "^'^  "'^^  ^"-«^^  °>i«a.  " 

are  «omeUes  sHghUy^' J^^^^^^^^  ^î'  * /^*"«  «1-*-  .< 
are  often  >«emLtit^«^^'^'' ^""  *°^  ^^««! 
n^ses^r'  beds  pf  considemhr  '^^'J?"^  occasionally  fopi 

stitutethe  preélZT^n'yZ  1^1  "^^^'^"*^«  «1 
yet  examined.     TW  L   how  ^'*^"'  '"""«'  ««  ^«'^ 

quari^ose  orthoclase^LeTs'  wlTr  "^""*'^  ^^^'^  ^«^^  «^ 
aluminôtavsedimltTand  I  ff  '^P'*''''*  *^"  «"*  «^^^  «f 
they^iU  probaUy  S  fôand  î  T*^^^'  Hmestones;  and 
complète  LUobg^LserirV^^^^  f^  ^*"''«^'  *°  "^^  «^ 
several  areas  amoTZT        T  '^"^^  ^*^«  J^»»  «bser^'ed  in 

■^e  uuron,  aud  are  also  met  with  among  the 


j^^Z':^^'zr^-^ 


gfatp'T  of  Qplaelitca,  JUa. 


'  ^''      '-TM^' 


'  /. 


32 


THE  CHEMI8TRY  OF  METAMORPHIC  ROCKS. 


[III. 


Adirondack  Mountains  ;  of  which,  according  to  Ëminons,  they 
fonn  the  highest  summits.* 

In  the  third  (or  Greeu  Mountain)  séries,  which  we  hâve 
referred  to  the  Lower  Silurian  âge,  the  gneiss  is  sometimes 
granitoid,  but  less  markedly  so  than  in  the  iirst  ;  and  it  is 
much  more  frequently  raicaceous,  often  passing  into  uiicaceous  ^'^ 
.schist,  a  common  variety  of  which  contains  disseminated  a 
large  quantity  of  chloritoid.  Argillites  abound,  and  luider 
tne  influence  of  metamorphisiu  sometimes  develop  cryst&Uine 
orthoclase.  At  othep  times  they  are  converted  into  a  soft 
micaceous  minerai,  and  form  a  kind  of  mica-schist.  Chias- 
tolite  and  staurolite  are  never  met  with  in  the  schists  of  tlùs 
séries,  at  least  in  its  northem  portions,  throughout  Canada  and 
New  England.  The  anorthblites  of  the  Labrador  séries  are 
hère  represented  by  fine-grained  diorites,  in  which  the  feldspar 
varies  from  albite  to  very  basic  varieties,  which  are  sometimes 
associated  with  an  aluminous  minerai  allied  to  chlorite  iij^  com- 
position. Chloritic  schists,  frequently  accompsniied  by  epidote, 
abound  in  this  séries.  The  great  predominance  of  magnesia 
in  the  forma  of  dolomite,  «agnesite,  steatite,  and  serpentine, 
is  alao  characteristic  of  portions  of  this  séries.  The  latter, 
which  forma  great  beds  (ophiolites),  is  marked  by  the  almost 
constant  presence  of  small  portions  of  the  oxides  of  chrome 
and  nickel.  Thèse  metals  are  also  common  in  the  other  mag- 
nesian  rocks  of  the  séries  ;  green  chrome-gamets,  and  chïome- 
mica  occur;  and  beds  of  chromic  iron  ore  are  found  in  the 
ophiolites  of  the  séries.  It  is^lso  a  gold-bearing  formiâtièn 
in  eastem  North  America,  and  contains  large  quantities  of 

côpper  ores  in  interstratifïed  beds The  only  graphite 

which  bas  been  found  in  the  third  séries  is  in  the  form  of 
impure  plumbaginous  shales. 

The  metamorphio  rocks  of  the  fourth  (or  Wliite  Mountain) 
séries,  as  seen  in  southeastern  Canada,  are  for  the  greater  part 
quartzose  and  mieaceous  pcKists,  more  or  less  feldspathic; 
which   in  certain   portions   become  remarkable   for   a   gi«at 

*  A  further  description  of  tliis  labrador  or  Noriaa  séries  is  given  in  Estay 
XIIL 


m  ™«  CHEllism  OF  MBTAMOBPHIO  BOCKS.  33 

development  of  crystala  of  stauroUte  and  of  r«d  «ir„«f      i^ 
large  amount  of  anriilite  o«nn«.  i«  ♦».•         •  f*™***     -^ 

by  nonnal  n.eta:o^^hi^;e:hSrtf  "^^^^'^^  '-^^  ^^ 
slate  in  parts  of  ite  touS  ^S."""""  "  ^^''«^^*^ 

liinesfcones  and  ophiolites  of  ea«f«m  V  '  '/  ^^» 'î'':^8ttmiiie 
P«>bably  o£  thia  -rie^LC^r:tïl2'^'  ''^ 
tem;  and  the  coal  beda  in  thJT'  ^"^^m  ay^ 

Large  masses  of  intrusivft  OTnnU„  ^- 
«trate  of  the  fourth  TriL   w'^fu^"'""  ^^l»*'^  *^«  «'y«to«me 

Laurentian  appear  to^^  «vl!      "^^^  ^^^*««  «^  ^^^ 

of  stratification.     iZlSe^^  ^^f /*^  "'^^^g  «vidences 
ophiolites  and    helSutLnf '£..!'"'  ^'^  ''^  "^  '^^ 

of  the  ^ypothetical^rS^tl^L':  t:^^.^^^^^^^ 
Laurentian  System,  although  tbis  is  T^n^A   f-      ^^  '"  *^® 
by  gieat  masses  of  syenit?  nr^hl^  f  '^*''*''  penetmted 

veina.  withmi^LrtnlLtrïrZ^  ^^^ 

lH)ron,  fluorine,  mhium,  «rconfultdXin^^^^^^^ 

alike  in  the  oldest  anH  ti,        "^  *°a  giucinum,  are  met  w  th 

Thèse,  howev^  I.^ii^'  T""'  T^ ^^  ^«^^  America. 

.  uf^^  f  :^  a;rd;:rn^^^^"^rih^  r- 

wid^re^^rsee^r^^  "^^î  *^«  -tT^l^'^L^f  a 
ciples  aCyTdl^ir^apIttif;^ 
geôlogists  to  apply.to  the  ^LTA.      ^°^"°«  ^«^ 
détermine  Whether  theyaL  ^If  7  '^î'^'  ^^  *^^    ^ 
tion.     I  hâve  found  that^J^t^  .   ,'  Tf^  '^^^"^ 

the  Labrador  séries  of  CanK  iStf  ^^'"^""*^  °^ 

^*Xl^*a«tly  represented  by  speci- 

^n.    The crystaUine rock,  onhtaiS^^.^     • '*''  **''''"'*  ""^  ««>o«î 


^'M 


i/MfisP . 


-,  T 


u 


THE  OHEMISTRY  OF  METAMORPHIC  ROCKS. 


pu. 


^ 


mens  from  Scarvig,  in  Skye  ;  and  the  ophiolites  of  lona  lesem- 
*  ble  those  of  the  Laurentian  séries  in  Canada.  Many  of  the 
rocks  of  P|[)negal  appear  to  me  lithologically  identical  with 
those  of  thel  Laurentian  period  ;  while  the  seïpentines  of  4-gïifl-» 
doey,  containing  chrome  and  nickel,  and  the  andalusite  Ma^id 
kyanite-schiata  of  other  parts  of  Donegal,  cannot  be  distin- 
^  guished  from  those  which  characterize  the  alfered  jMdseozoic 
strata  of  Canada.  .  It  is  to.  remarked  that  chrome  and  nickel 
beating  serpentines  are  met  with  iii  the  same  geological  horizon 
in  Canada  and  Norway  ;  and  that  those  of  the  ScottishJîigh- 
lands,  which  cqntain  the  same  éléments,  belong  to  ttt^ewer 
gneiss  formation  ;  which,  according  to  Sir  Eoderick  Murchison, 
would  be  of  similar  âge.*  The  serpentines  of  CornWâll,  the 
Vosges,  Mourifc  Rosa,  aird  many  other  régions,  agrée  in  contain- 

*  ing  chrome  and  nickelj  which,  on  the  other  hand,  seem  to  be 
absent  from  the  serpentines  of  the  Primitive  Gneiss  folS^j^tion 
of  Scandinavia.  It  î^mains  to  be  deterinined  how  fer  chemicpl 
and  mineralbgical  différences,  such  as  those  which  hâve  been 
hère  indicated,  are  geolo^al  ç^onstantsrs.  M^nwhile  ,it  is 
greatly  to  be  desired  that  future  Chemical  and  mineralogical 
investigations  of  crystalline  rocks  should  be  made  with  this 
question  in  viewj  and  thaV  the  metamorphio  strata  of  the 

yrf^ritish  fsles,  and  of  southen^and  centtel  Europe,  be  studied 
^\  with  référence  to  the  important  probljjm  which  it  has  been 
my  ehdoavor,  in  the  présent  paper,  to  lapbefoie  the  Society. 

'    \'l  •  See  in  this  connection  the  Essaya  XIII.  and  XV. 


». 


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THE   CHEjnSTEY  OF  THE   PEIMEVAL 

EAETH.  •,     ;    • 

a867.) 

Proceedtngs  of  the  Institution.  I«  an  atteriu.?»!;  l  '^  '""*  'eP^nted  lh)m  the 
some  or  the  latent  conclusion,  of  che^iÏÏ^il'S  V^""' '°  "  '=°"'"«=t«l  '""» 
«me  coBsidemble  attention,  having  been  ^^„fr.LT^'  *'""'*'  "  »""«=t«l  «t  the 
aod^verselj.  criticised  both  In  tliéSiS  V    ^^fî**^'  ''«^««•«'"e«  translateU 

As,  bearîng  upon  thesGbJect  oithlZt^  '«".«««aame  Journal»  tov  Februarj'.  Ifwi 

,  dkjomitj^nd  gjftsum,  «nd  thtir  retation  t^T«  n!  «"^ifl^nd  mode  of  fonnation  of 
f^er  ii-rekr^  p,^r  V«I.  ta  rhinoL'e."  '*""^'^°»  »'  ""«  .tmo.phere,  the 

Wogr,  ..nac^l^a  veiycomplex  scie„cef^^„2ding  a! 
.^  chanta  apel,,al«>  to  those  of  exltt^l'^f  T 

"«f  jspecirosoopic  research  liav»  Jo+«k*  v— _  S  .  ••-   .^    . 


trial'HDectro«hnn,V  Z     '^^'T-\  ^"®  ^'®«*«  of/xtra-terres- 


t 


-Si^ 


"" TT 


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f» 


f;.^. 


/ 


36     THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  PRIMEVAL  EARTH.    [IV. 

Huggins.  We  see,  by  its  aid,  mattter  in  ail  its  stages,  and 
trace  the  process  of  condensation  and  the  formation  of  worlds. 
It  is  long  since  Herschel,  the  first  of  his  illustrions  name,  con- 
ceived  the  nebulaj,  which  his  télescope  could  not  résolve,  to  be 
the  uncondensed  matter  from  which  worlds  are  made.  Sub- 
séquent astronomers,  with  more  powerful  glasses,  ^ere  able  to 
show  that  many  of  thèse  nebulœ  are  really  groups  of  stars,  and 
thus  a  doubt  waa  throWn  over  the  existence  of  nebulous  lumi- 
nous  matter  in  spaco  ;  but  the  spectroscope  has  now  placed 
the  matter  beyond  ddubt.  By  its  aid,  we  find  in  the  heavens, 
planets,  bodies  like  our  earth,  shining  only  by  reflected  light  ; 
suns,  self-luminoua,  radiating  light  from  solid  matter  ; .  and, 
moreover,  true  nebulî»,  or  masses  of  luminous  gaseous  matter. 
Thèse  three  forma  represent  three  distinct  phases  i»  the  con- 
densation of  tke  primeval  matter  ftom  which  our  own  and 
other  planetary  Systems  hâve  been  formed. 

This-  nebulous  matter  is  conceived  to  be  so  intensely  heated 
as  to  be  in  the  state  of  true  gas  or  vapor,  and,  for  this  reason, 
feeb\y  luminous  when  compared  with  the  sun.  It  wôuld  be 
ont  of  place,  on  the  présent  occasion,  to  discuss  the  detailed  ré- 
sulta of  spectroscopic  investigation,  or  the  beautiful  and  ingen: 
ious  methods  by  which  modem  science  has  shown  the  existence 
in  the  aun,  and  in  many  otker  luminous  bodies  in  space,  of  the 
aame  chemisai  éléments  that  are  met  with  in  our  earth,  and 
even  in  our  own  bodies. 

Calculations  based  on  the  amount  of  light  and  beat  radiated 
from  the  sun  show  that  the  température  which  reigns  at  its  sur^ 
face  is  so  great  that  we  can  hardly  form  an  adéquate  idea  of 
it.  Of  the  chemical  relations  ofesuch  intensely  heated  matter, 
modem  chemiatry  has  made  known  to  us  some  curions  facts, 
which  help  to  throw  light  on  the  constitution  and  luminosity 
of  the  sun.  Heat,  under  ordtimry  conditions,  is  favorable  to 
chemical  comifination,  but  a  hi^er  temperaéure  reverses  ail 
aflfinitiea.  Thus,  the  B<^<»dled  noble  metals,  goM,  silver,  mer- 
cury,  etc.,  unité  with  oxygén  and  .other  éléments;  but  thèse 
compounds  are  decomposod  by  Kea^,  alid  {he  pure  mëtals  are 
regeuerated.    A  similar  reaction  wm  many  years  aihce  Ishown 


<gï. 


i-isâ>îiî^ 


.  ♦ 
h- 


.•1**1' 


«*i  tik*  jir  t  U/»fe.ïi 


\:     \     f 


IV.J    THE  CHEMISTRY  OP  THE  PEIMEVAL  EAB^H.     37 

by  Mr.  Grove  with  regard  to  w^ter,  whose  éléments,  ;-  oxygen 
and  hydrogen.-when  mingled  and  kindled  by  flame,  or  W 
the  electric  spark,  mnte  to  fonn  water.  which.  howevêr  at  a 
much  hxgher  température,  is  again  ,.solved  inte'  its  comp;nLt 
gsses.     Hence  af  we  had  thèse  two  gases  existing  xn  admk"ure 
at  a  ve^  hrgh  température,  cold  would   actua^y  efflt  the  ' 
combmation  pr.c..ly  as  beat- would  do  if  the  mixed  ga.es  we^ 
at    he  ord.nary  temperatu^,  and  htemlly  it  would  le  found 
that     frost  perfonns  tbe  etfect  of  fire."     The^î^ecent  reséarches 
ofHenry  Ste.-Claxre  Déville  and  other.  go  far  to  show  that  th 
breakmg  up  of  compounds,  or  dissociation  of  éléments  by    n 
tense  beat,  is  a  principle  of  universal  apj)lication  ;  so  that  we 
may .suppose  that  aU  the  éléments  which  make  up  the  sun^r 
our  planet  would,  when  so  intensely  heated  as  to  be  inThat 
^^eous  condition  which  ail  matter  is  capable  of  a«sumi"  ,  'e 
maxn  uncombxned,-that  is  to  say,  would  exist  together^  the 
condition  ofwHat  we  call  chemicd  éléments,  whojfurth  r  dt^ 
eociation  m  stellar  or  nebulous  masses  may  even  give  uTeS 
of  matter  std  more  elemental  than  that  re^ealed  by^  experf 
mente  of  the  laboratory,  where  we  can  only  conTect^' the  e«n" 

-liie  Sun,  then,  is  to  be  conceived  as  an  immeïiee  massof 
intensely  heated  gaseous  and  dissociated  tnattS,  so^ond^ld 
however,  that,  notwithstanding  its  excessive  à^perj^Trht 
a  spécifie  gmvxty  not  much  below  that  of  watàTl^Wv 
off  nng  a  condition  analogous  to  that  which  Cag^iaS  K 
Tour  observed  for  volatile  bodies  whei,.„bmitted  tf^t  It 
ure  at  températures  much  abovo  their  boiling  point  The  m 

he  production  of,solid  or  liquid  particle^Xd^Z;^^^^^      • 
.  in*  tl^e  stiU  dissociated  vapors,  beco^ne  inten^Jy  lum'norami 
Z     l  "A"  Pl^ot-Phe-:     The  condensed  parirdr^rd 
down  mto  the  intensely  heated  ma.s,  .gain  meet  wiS  aTeat  . 
0  dissociation;  éo  that  the  process  of  combination  atlhe  sut 
face  18  mce63|»ntly  renewed.  whil>^  *Y  i.^nt  nf 


4k«= 


6UU  mny,  W 


J 


'^'^^■ 


38 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OP  THE  PHIMEVAL  EARTH. 


pv. 


supposed  to  be  maintaiaed  by  the  slôw  condensation  of  its  mass  ; 
a  dinimution  by  t^Vïï*-**  ^^  ^^  présent  diameter  being  sufficient, 
accdrding  to  Helmholtz,  to  maintain  the  présent  supply  of  beat 
for  ^,000  years. 

This  hypothesis  of  the  nature  of  the  sun  and  of  the  luminous 
process  going  on  at  its  surface  is  the  one  lately  put  forward  by 
Faye,  and,  although  it  bas  met  ^th  opposition,  appears  to  be 
that  which  accords  best  "Vifith  our  pressât  knowledge  of  the 
chemical  and  physicai  conditions  of  matter  such  as  we  must 
suppose  it  to  exist  in  the.condensing  gaseous  mass,  which, 
according  to  the  nebula*  hyp^tixeais,  should  form  the  centre 
ôf  our  solar  system.  Takipg  this,  as  we  bave  ah?eady  done,  for 
granted,  it  matters  little  whether  we  inia|iûe  the  différent 
planets  to  Jiave  been  successively  detached  as  rings  during  the 
rotation  oï  the  primai   mass,  as  is  generaUy   conceived,  or 

'  whether  we  admit  with  Chacorn^ic  a  procéss  of-  aggregation  or 
concretion  operating  within  the  primai  nebular  lûass,  resulting 
in  the  production  oj  sun  a»d  planets.  In  either.  case  we  eome 
to  the  conclusion  that  our  earth  jnust  at  one  time  hâve  been  in 
an  intensely  h'eated  gaseous  condition,  such  as  the  sun  now  pré- 
sents, self-luminous,  and  wllh  a  process  of  condensation  going 
on  at  first  at  the  surface  „only,  ufitil  by  cooling  it  must  bave 
reached  the  point  whej»,  the  gasëcp  centre  was  exchanged  for 
one  of  combined  and  ïiq^èfied  nmtter.  *- 

Hère  commence^:  "^le  chemistry  of  the  earth,  to  the  discussion 
of  which  the  foregdHg  considérations  bave  been  only  prelim- 
inary,     So  long  as  the  ga^ous  condition  of  the  earth  lasted, 

,  we  may  suppose  the  whole  mass  to  hâve  been  boraogeneous; 
but  when  tlie  température  became  so  rêducpd  that  the  existence 
of  chemical  compounds  at  the  centre  became  possible,  tbose 
which  were  most  stable  at  the  elevated  température  then  pr©- 
vailing  would  be  first^formèd.  Thus,  for  example,  while  com- 
pounds of  oXygen  with  mercury,  or  even  with  hydrogen,  could 
not  exist,  oxides  of  silicon,  aluminum,  calcium,  magnésium,  and 
iron  might  be  formed  and  condense  in  a  liquid  form  at  the 
centre  of  the  globe.  By4>T0gTe88ive  cooling,  still  other  éléments 
wùtdd  be  reaoved-frwt^ -riw  gnaooug  maee,  which  would  fonn 


% 


tji,'j.Tr"T"F' 


S^^V/ 


T*î 


*?r". 


IV.]    THE  CHEMISTRY  OP  THE  PEIMEVAL  EARTH.     3^ 

the  atmosphère  of  the  non-gasèous  nucleus.  We  may  suppose 
an  arrangement  of  the  condensed  mattera  at  the  centre  accord- 
lug  to  their  tespeetive  spécifie  gravities,  and  thus  the  fact  that 
the  density  of  the  earth  as  a  whole  is  about  Uvice  the  mean 
.  densitj  of  the  matters  which  form  its  solid  surface  may  be 
explamed  Metallie  or  metaUoidal  compounds  of  éléments, 
grouped  differently  from  any  compounds  known  to  us,  and  far 
more  dense,  may  exist  in  the  centre  of  the  earth 

The  proçess  of  combination  and  cooling  having  gone  on  untU 
those  elements^whieh  are  npt  volatile  in  the  beat  of  ou^dinarv 
furnaces^were  coMensed  into  a  liquid.form,  we  maXre  in- 
qmre  what  would  be  the  r,sult,  «pon  the  mass,  of  a  further 
réduction  vof  tempemture.     It  is  generaUy  a^umed   that  in 
the  coohné  of  a  h(^id'  globe  of  minerai'  matter,  congélation 
*  would  commencé  at  the  surface,  as  in  the  «gSB-^water  •  but 
water  offers  an  excepti«i  to  inost  othe^iqSds^ï^i^di^ir 
-  xs  deWm  th.  hqmd  thaû  in  theWîrform:  '  Hence,  iclfloats 
-on  wâtev,  and  freezjpj^i^ter  WJbmes  covered  with  a  Wer  of 
jce,  v^liich  protects  the  lifllii^pw.     With  çïost  other  matters. 
however,  and  notablywitTthevprioptnÛieral  and  earthy  com- 
pounds analogousrt»<liose  which  mgy  be  suppo^  to  hâve 
formed  the  fiery-fluid  earth,  numei«us  aiid  careful  ^^erimenta 
show  that  the  products  pf  solidification  ^re„niuch  denser  than 
the  hquid  mass  ;  so  th^t  solidification  would  hâve  commenced 
at  the. centre,  whose  température  woûld  thus  be  the  congealing 
point  of  these^liquid.  compound^    The  impoitaat  i^searches'' 
of  Hopkms  and  Fairbairh  on  the  Tnflueace  of  pressure  in  aug- 
î.    menting  the  melting  point  of  such  compounds  «s  contract  in 
sohdifying  are  to  be  çonsidered  in  this  cônnectiott       '€ 
(     It  is  wit^  the  supelfifcial  portions  o«tth<f  fused.  minefal  masa  • 
\  <if  the  globe  that  we  hâve  now  to.  do  ;.  since  there  is  no  geod 
,  reasonfor  supj^g  that  the  deepîy  seated  portions  hâve  in. 
.    tervened  in  an^iject  manner  in  thé  production  of  the  rocks 
which  fonn  thQ;  «uperficial  crust     Thia,jâJJiû_timrorîtrfir8t   ' 
sohdificatiop,  pr«sented  probably  an>egular,  diversifia  sur- 
lace  from  the  resnlt  of  contraction  of  the  congetïHng  mass  which 
«t  Imt  (omod  u  iiquid  ba^h  ut  m  g,m  depth,  sù^unding^ 


"S 


^    -, 


,•>  _    * 


,»'  '■- 


**  ^*<Tit 


A-'ji^^Jf, 


r-l 


40 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  PRIMEVAL  EARTH. 


[IV. 


vJ-"" 


^ 


the  solid  nucleus.     It  is  to  the  composition  of  this  crust  that 
we  must  direct  our  attention,  since  therein  would  be  found  ail 
the  éléments  (with  the  exception  of  such  as  were  still  in  th^ 
gaseous  fonn)  now  met  with  in  the  known  rocks  of  the  earth. 
This  crust  is  now  everywhere  buried^beneath  its  own  ruins, 
and  we  eau  only  from  chemical  considérations  attempt  to  re- 
construct  it.     If  we  consider  the  conditions  through  which  it* 
has  passed,  and  the  chemical-  affinities  which  mtist  htév^  come 
into  play,  we  shall  see  that  they  are  just  what  would  now"  resuit 
if  the  solid  land,  sea,  and  air  were  made  ta  react  upon  each 
other  undor  the  influence  of  intense  beat.     l!o  the  chemist  it  ia 
at  once  évident  that  from  tJiis  would  resuit  the  conversion  of 
ail  carbonates,  chlorides,  and  sulphates  into  silicates,  and  the 
séparation  of  the  carbon,  chlorine,  and  sulphur  in  the  form  of 
acid  gases,  which,  with  nitrogen,  watery  vapor,  and  a  probable 
excess  of  oxygen,  would  form  the  dense  primeval  atmosphère. 
The  resulting  fused  mass  would  contain  ail  the  bases  as  silicates, 
and  must  bave  much  resembled  in  composition  certain  fumace- 
slags  or  volcanic  glasses.     The  atmosphère,  charged  with  aci4 
gases,  which  surround  ed  this  primitive  rock,  must  bave  been  of 
immense  density.     Under  the  pressure  of  such  a  high  baroraet- 
ric  column,  condensation  would   take  place  at  a  température 
much  abovâ  the  présent  boiling  point  of  water,  and  the  de- 
pressed  portions  of  the  half-cooled  crust  would  be  flooded  with 
a  highly  heated  solution  of  hydrochloric  and  sulphuric  acids, 
whose  action  in  decomposing  the  silicates  is  easily  intelligible 
to  the  chemist.     The  formatioû  of  chlorides  and  sulphates  of  the 
-  various  bases,  and  the  séparation  of  silica,  would  go  on  until 
the  affinities  of  the  acids  were  satisfied,  and  there  would  be  a 
séparation  of  silica,  taking  the  form  of  quartz,  and  the  produc- 
tion of  a  sea-water  holding  in  solution,  besides  the  chlorides  and 
sulphates  of  sodium,  calcium,  and  magnésium,  salts  of  alumi- 
num  fnd  other  metallic  bases.     The  atmosphère,  being  thus 
deprived  o^iil»  volatile  chlorine  and  suldj^ur  compounds^  arould 
af  puoxijhate '4o  that  of  oui.  own  time,  but  differin  ita  greater 
amount  of  carbonic  acid. 


•    We  iiHxi  euUjftiuiu  ilie  aecoMd  phaa»  jju  tho  Mliioû  of  ^htf 


'.'S-, 


m 


A' 


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— .  *     \ 


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■\t- 


■V'ir 


"T-    ■.!;.,'  i-' 7'  ,t■■^"^     -' 


"■'.      ■.'♦■-■      ■'.'(^S^-,-' 


•    )« 


action  of  <tef= 


IV.]  THE  CHEMISTRJ  OF  THE  PRIMEVAL  EARTH.'''        41        • 

"  atmosphère  upon  the   earth's  crust.     This,  unlike   the  first 
which  was  subaqueous,  or  operativë',  only  on  the  portion  cov- 
ered  with  the  precipitated  water,  is  8ubaerial,^nd  conslsts^in  the    ' 
decompositioifipf  the  exposed  par^oT^rimitive  crust  under    ^' 
the  influence  of  the  carbonic  acfid an^m^ure of  the  air  .which        ' 
convert  the -«omçlex  silicates  !of  the  crust  into  a  sUicate  of 
^umma    or  clay;  while   the  separated  lime,  magnesia,  and 
alka^es.  being  conyerted  into  carbonates,  are  carried  down 
mto  the  sea  in">  gtate  qî  solution. 

The  first  efifect  <if]these  dissqlved  carbonates  would   be  to 
precipitate  the  dissolved  alumina  and  .the  heavy  metals,  after    " 
which  ^ould  resuit  a  décomposition  of  the  chloride  of  calcium     ^   ' 
of  the  sea-water,  resulting  in  the  production  ,of  carbonate  of         ' 
hme  or  limestone,  and  chloride  of  sodium  or  common  sait  A  This 
process  is   one  still  going   on  at  the  earth's  ^surface,"  slWlv 
breaking  down  and  destroying  the  hardest  rocks,  and,  aided  by      /^ 
mechanical  processes,  transforming  them  into  clays;  althou^       ^ 
the  action,  from  the  comparative  mrity  of  carbonic  acid  in  the 
atmosphère,  is  far  less  energetic  than  in  earlier  times,  when  the  / 

abundance  of  this  gas,  and  a  higher  température,  favored  the  ' 
chemicd  décomposition  of  the  rocks.  But  now,  as  then,  every 
clod,  of^lay  formed  from  the  decayof  a  crystalline  rock  cor- 
responded  to  an  équivalent  of  carbonic  acid  abstracted  from  the 
atmosplere,  and  to  équivalents  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  com- 
mon  sali  formed  from  the  chloride  of  calcium  of  the  sea-water. 

oolj-J'^^T^"""'^'  ^  *^'  <^nnection,  to  compare  the 
coipposihon  of  the  waters  of  the  modem  océan  with  that"  of 
the  sea  ,n  ancient  times,  whose  composition  we  leam  from  tho 
fossa  sea-waters  which  are  still  te  be  found  in  certain  regions,  " 
impnsoned  m  the  pores^ôî  the  older  stratified  rocks.  Thesê 
are  vastly  rocher  in  salts ,  of  lime  and  magnesia  than  those  of 
«le  present  sea,  from  which  hâve  been  separated,  by  chemical 
p^eBses,  .^U  the  carbonate  of  lime  of  our  limestones,  with 
„the  exception  M  that  derived  from  the  subaerial  decay  of  cal- 
c^reous  and  ma^esian  8il|cate«  belonging  te  the  primitive  crust. 
;Xhe,ffladnrH  removalyin  the  tom.of  cwboTiate  nf  Ifmrnf  thr 


s  acid 


Ïfi6>nmeval.:atlnto8pfc,  hàs  been  conoected 


iS  -    •    <  . .    .  . 

Jd,.   9.   .  *     . 


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42  THE  CHEMISTBY  OF  THE  PRIMEVAL  EA^TH.  [IV. 

îvith  great  changes  in  the  organic  life  of  the  gîobe.  The  air 
was  doubtless  at  fiist  unfit  for  the  reepiiration  of  warm-blooded 
ônimals,  and  we  find  the  higher  forms  of  life  coming  gia^ually 
int(^  existerieetis  yre  appreach  the  présent  period  of  a  purer  air. 
Calcixlations  lead  us  tô  eonclude  that  the  amount  of  carbon 
thua  removed  in  the  fonn  of  carbonic  acid  bas  been  so  énot- 
mous,  that  we  must  suppose  the  earlier  fortes  of  air-breathing 
animais  to  hâve  been  peculiarly  ad^pted  to  live  in  an  atmos- 
phère which  would  probably  be  too  impure  to  support  modem 
reptilian  life.  Tlne  agency  of  plants  in  purifyihg  the  primitive 
atmosphère  was  long  since  poiiited  «ut  by  Brongniart,  and  our 
gftat  stores  of  fossil  fael  hâve  been  derived  from  the  décompo- 
sition, by  the  ancient  végétation,  of  the  excess  of  carbonic  acid 
of  the  èarly  atmosphère,  which  through  this  agency  was  ex-' 
changed  for  oxygen  gas.  In  this  connection  the  vegelàtion  of 
former  periods  présents  the  curious  phenomeHbn  of  plants  allied 
to  those  now  growing  beneath  the  tropicsf  flourishing  within 
the  polar  circles.  Many  ingeniolis  Hypothèses  hâve  been  pro-  '  n 
posed  to  account  for  the  warmer  cliinate  6f  earlier  times,  but  A 
are  at  best  unsatisfactory,  and  it  appears  to  me  that  the  true 
solution  hf  the  ptoblem  may  be  found  in  the  constitution  ôf  the 
early  atmosphère,  when  considered  i^  the  light  of  Dr.  Tyndall's 
beautiful  researches  on  radiant  iiëat.  He  has  found  that  the  . 
présence  of  a  few  hundredths  of  carbonic-acid  gas  in  the  avtmes- 
phere,  while  offering  almost  no  obstacle  to  the  passage  of  the 
solar  rays,  would  <suffiee  to  prevent  almost  entirely  the  lossj^  by 
radiation,  of  obscure  beat,  so  that  tae  surface  of  the  land  be- 
^th  such  an  atmosphère  would  become  like  a  vast  orchard- 
kouse,  in  which  the  condition»  of  climate  necossary  tp  a  luxu- 
nant  végétation  would  be  extended  even  to  the  polar  régions. 

This  peculiar  condition  of  the  early  atmosphère  cannot  fail  to 
hâve  influènced  in  many  other.ways  the  processes  going  on  at 
the  earth's  surface.*  *Xo  ISke  a  single  ex^ample-:  one  of  the 
processes  by  whieh  gypsum  may  be  produced  at  the  earth's 
surface  involvesrilie  simultaneous  production  of  bicarbonate  of 
m^piMia.     This,  beîng«inore  soluble  than.the  gypsum,  is  not* 


*  See  Appeadix  to  tiils  psper, 


"-I 


^1»  JM^k,  ,  ,.  * 


ii*'  ifiïsï,'  'tt-Si^ 


•^} 


-.-îi,  „ 


^J^J  tHB  OHEMISTOY  OF  rilE  PRIMEVAL  EARTH.  43 

fhA  Po«.    I-    "  "  was  lormed  and  subsequeiitly  carried  away.  ia 
he  case  of  many  gypsu„x  deposits,  whose  thickness  indioaL  a 
W  contmuance  of  the  proçesa  under  ■  conditions  mT^l^ 
Frfect  and  complète  than  we  can  attein  under  our  vZZ 
-atmosphe^.     While  studying  this  ^^ction  I  was  led  to  L^^ 
whether  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  earlier  perio,is  m^t  noX" 
Wd  the  fom^ation  of  gypsu„,  ;  and  I  found,  by  ^ea'! 
the  expenments  in  an  artificial  atmosphère  impkgnated  S 
carbomc  ap:d,  that  such  was  ^ally  the  Le.*     W^mafthree 
conclude  that  the  peculiar  co^sition  of  the  pri^vd  Itmol 
Phex.  was  the  essential  condition  under  which  the  Zt  dop^sl 

°  l^i:z:r'''''  -^^^  -^  -gnesiafiiiS:: 

The  reactions  of  the  atmosphère,  which  we  hâve  considex^d 
■  iSetnh  1^  *'  f.'r^"^'  ^«^^  -d  disinLXuhJ 

,  heatupon  the  buried  sédiments  wouTbe  to«nft.t  * 

ducing  new  chemical  actions  b^lt^eif^'*'?'  ^""v 
convertingthem  izxto  what  ar^  knawn  as  tl^r  ''  '"'^ 
niorphic  rocks  aiir-h  «a  r,;.  •  '  «8  jîrysWlhne  or  meta- 


,.,      .  r --v^^ijcio  wmcn  were 

Wce  beds  of  modefti  sand  and  gravel,  a 


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'44     THE  CHEMièTRY  OF  THE  PRIMEVAL  ÉARTH.    [IV. 

position  quartz,  which,  so  far  fi&  we  know,  can  only Jrà  geneiv 
ated   by  aqueous  agencies,  and  at  comparatively  low  tem-  , 
^oratures. 

The^ction  of  heat  upon  many  buried  sedimentary  rocks, 
how^r,  not  only  softens  or  nielts  them,  but  givea  rise  to  a 
great  disengagement  hi  gases,  such  as  carbonic  and  hydrochlo- 
ri<5  acidâ,  and  sulphur  compounds,  ail  of  which  are  results  of  the 
reaction  of  the  éléments  of  sedimentary  rocks,  heated  in  prés- 
ence of  the  water  which  everywhere  filled  their  pores.     In  the 
products  thus  generated  we  hâve  a  ratîonal  explanation  of  the 
chemical  phenomena  of  volcanoe»,  which  are  vents  through 
which  thèse  fused  rocks  and  confined  gases  find  their  way  to  the 
surface  of  the  earth.     In  some  cases,  as  where  there  is  no  dis- 
of  gases,  the  fused  or  half-fused  rocks  sohdify  in 
ints  or  fissures  in  the  overlying  strata,  and  constitute 
jplutonic  rocks,  sUch  as  granité  and  basait, 
ry  of  volcauic  phenomena  was  put  forward  in  germ 
n  F.  W.  Herschel  thirty  years  sincej  and,  as  I  hâve 
during  the  past  few  years  endeavored  to  show,  it  is  the  one 
most  in  accordance  with  what  we  know  both  of  the  chemistry 
and  the  physics  of  the  earth.     That  ail  volcanic  and  plutonic 
phenomena  bave  their  seat  in  the  deeply  buried  and  soflened 
zone  of  sedimentary  deposits  of  the  earth,  and  not  in  its  primi- 
tive nucleus,  accords  with  the  conclusions  already  arrived  at 
relative  to  the  solidity  of  that  nucleus  ;  with  the  geological 
relations  of  thèse  phenomena,  as  I  hâve  elsewhere  shown  ;  and 
also  with  the  remarkable  mathematical  qnd  astronomical  dé- 
ductions of  the  late  Mr.  Hopkins  of  Cambridge,  based  lipon  the 
phenomena   of  precession  and  nutation,  those  of  Archdeacon 
Pratt,  and  those  of  Profeesor  Thompson  on  the  theory  of  the 
tides,  —  ail   of  wliich  lead  to  the  same  conclusion,  namely, 
that  the  earth,  if  not  solid  to  the  centte,  must  bave  a  crust  sev- 
eral  hundrèd  miles  in  thickness,  which  would  practically  ex- 
clude  it  from  any  participation  in  the  plutonic  phenomena  of 
the  earth's  surface,  except  such  as  would  resuit  from  its  high 
température,  communicated  by  conduction  to  the  sedimentary 
strata  repôsîngupôn it. — ' - r- ■ 


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IV.]  THE  CHEMISTRY  OP  THE  PMMEVAL  EARTH.  45 

wirî,%'-?Tî!!'''  ^*'"''°  *^^  P^"*«»^«*«  ««d  the  neptunists 
which  dmded  the  acientific  world  in  the  la,t  genemtioh  was 
m  bnef,  tins:  whethar  fire  or  water  h,,s  been  the  great  «2 
m  giviBg  ongin  and  form  to  the  .ocks  of  t^";  CC 
A^hile  8ome  mamtained  the  direct  igneous  origKf:Jh  11 
as  gnei^,  mxca-achkt,  and  seipentine,  and  asECte  L 
fiUing  of  me^lhc  veina,  otbers-  the  neptuniaLchool  -  we 

on  the  earth,  and  even  eought  to  dérive  aU  rocks  W  prima" 
aqueous  magma.     In  the  light  of  the  exposition  whkh  ïh^e 

both  of  thèse  opposing  schools.  We  hâve  seen  how  reactions 
dépendent  on  water  and  acid  solutions  hâve  transformed  the 
pnmitive  plutonic  mass,  and  how  the  resulting  aqueo"  sed' 
mente  when  deeply  buried,  come  again  .ithin'the'dom  in  1 

or;l^c::t^"^'  "^  ^^^^"^-^  -^  --^^^  p^--^« 

iJï  Z^r"  T,^''^/  ï'^'  *^"^  sought  toput  befoi^  you  in 
he  s^iort  txme  aUotted  this^evening  is,  as  I  hâve  endeavored  to 
^w.  in  stnct  conformity  with  known  chemical  laws  and  the 
A6t8  of  physical  and  geological  science.     Did  time  permit,  I 
alltÏ?^  h«ve  attempted  to  demonstrate  at  gi^ter  length  its 
S^ks  nf    '^''^^^'^''^'^  «^  t^«  «rigin  of  the  varions  classes 
of  i^cks,  of  meta^hc  veiçs  and  deposits.  of  mineml  springs,  and 
of  gaseous  exhaktions.     I  shaU  not,îbwever.  hâve  faLd  in 
2  object.  If,  m  the  honr  which  we  hâve  spént  together,  I 
haU  hâve  sncceeded  in  showing  that  chemistiy  is  able  to 
t  W  a  great  hght  upon  the  history  of  the  formation  of  our 
globe,  and  to  explain  in  a  satisfactory  manner  some  of  the 
most  difficult  problems  of  geology;  and  I  feel  that  there  i^a 
peculiar  fitness  m  bmging  such  an  exposition  before  ko  mem- 
bers  of  this  Royal  Institution,  which  has  been  for  To  many 
years  devoted  to  the  study  of  pux«  science,  and  whose  glory  it 

B;wÏt       ;  "^Tu"^"  "^°  ^^"«  ^<  -d  those  who 


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46     THE  CHEMISTEY  OF  THE  PRIMEVAL  EAETH.    [IV. 


APPENDir. 

ON     THB      CLIUIATB    OF    THE     EABTH     IN     FOBÛEB     GKOLOOICAL 
*  PEBIObS. 

Tbe  followingjnote  appeared  in  the  London,  Edinbnrgh,  and  Dqblin  Fhilosophical 
Magazine  for  Ocfober,  1863.  I  subseqnently  found  that  thig  conséquence  of  hU  dis- 
coveries  liad  not  escaped  Tyndall,  who,  In  his  Bakerian  lecture  for  1881  (Ibid.,  October, 
1861),  after  showing  thàt  trom  its  influence  on  terrestrial  radiation  ail  variation  in  the 
anioimt  of  aqueoug  vapor  must  produce  changes  in  climate,  added,  "  Similar  remaries 
would  apply  to  the  carlranlc  acid  'diffUsed  thmugh  the  air,  while  an  almost  inappré- 
ciable admixture  of  any  of  the  hydro-carbon  vapors  would  produce  great  efliscts  on 
tliè  terrestrial  rays,  and  corresponding  changes  in  cllmate.  It  is  not  therefore  neces- 
sary  to  assume  altérations  in  t^e  density  and  height  of  the  atmosphère,  to  account  for 
différent  amounta  of  beat  being  preserved  to  the  earth  at  différent  times  ;  a  slight 
change  in  its  variable  constituents  would  account  for  this.  Such  changes,  in  fact, 
may  bave  prodnced  ail  the  mutations  of  climate  which  the  researches  of  geologists 
reveal."  A  letter  trom  the  author  to  Dr.  Tyndall,  in  which  this  |wssage  was  cited, 
appeared  in  the  above-named  magazine  for  llarch,  1864. 

The  late  researches  of  Dr.  John  Tyndall  on.the  relation  of  gases 
and  vapora  to  radiant  heat  are  important  in  their  bearing  upon  the 
température  of  the  earth's  surface  in  former  geolugical  periods.  He 
has  shown  that  heat,  from  whatever  source,  passes  through  hydro- 
gen,  Qxygen,  and  nitrogen  gases,  or  through  d^y  air,  with  neai-ly  the 
same  facility  as  through  a  vacuum.  Thèse  gases  are  thus  to  radiant 
heat  what  rock-salt  is  among  solids.  Glass,  and  *8ome  other  solid 
substances  which  are  readily  perméable  to  light  and  to  solar  heat, 
offer,  as  is  well  known,  great  obstacles  to  the  passage  of  radiant  heat 
from  non-luminouB  bodies  ;  and  Tyndall  has  recently  shown  that 
many  colorless  vdpore  and  gases  hâve  .a  similar  effect,  intercepting 
the  heat  from  such,  sources,  by  which  they  become  warmed  and  in 
their  turn  radiate  heat.  Thus,  while  for  a  vacuum  the  absorption 
of  heat  from  a  body  at  212°  F,  is  represented  by  0,  and  that  for  dry 
air  is  l,  the  absorption  by  an  atmosphère  of  carbonic-«cid  gas  equals 
90,  by  marsh  gas  403,  by  olefiant  gas  970,  and  by  ammonia  1,195. 
The  diffusion  of  olefiant  gas  of  one-inch  tension  in  a  vacuum  pro- 
duces an  absorption  of  90,.  and  the  same  amount  of  carbonic-acid 
gas  an  absorption  of  6.6.  The  small  quantities  of  ozone  présent  m 
electrolytic  oxygen  were  found  to  raise  its  absorptive  power  from  1 
to  85,  and  even  to  136  ;  and  the  watery  vapor  présent  in  the  air  at 
ordinary  températures  in  like  manner  produces  an  absorption  of 
ieat  repreaentfid  hy  70  or  80.    Air  saturated  with  moistœ»  at  ^ 


^> 


IV.]  THE  dHEMISTRY  OF  THE  PRIMEVAL  EAETH.  47 

ordinay  tëtapmture  abeorbs  more  ihan  five  hundredths  of  the  beat 
radiated  from  a  metallic  vessel  filled  with  boiling  water,  and  TyndaU 
calculâtes  that  of  the  beat  radiatal  from  tbe  eaSh'e  surface  wlS 
by  tbe  sun's  rays,  one  tentb  is  intercepted  by  the  aqtieous  vap^ 
wxthm  ten  feet  of  the  surface.     Hence  the  p^werful  influencr'T/ 
moM  air  upon  the  climate  of  the  globe.    Like  a  covering  of  gla^ 
it  aUows  the  sun's  rays  to  reach  the  earth,  but  prevents  to  a  S 
extent  the  loss  by  radiation  of  the  beat  tbus  comînunicated.      ^ 
When,  boVever,  the  supply  of  beat  fit>ni  the  son  is  interrupted 
durrng  long  nights,  the  radiation  which  goes  on  into^  spac^n^ 
the  pj.c,p,tat,on  of  a  gréât  part  of  the  wlteiy  vapor  froTthTa^ 
and  the  earth,  thus  deprived  ot-this  protecting  shield,  become 
more  and  more  rapidly  cooled.     If  now  we  could  suppl X  «l 
mosphere  to  be  mingled  ;vith  s^e  permaiient  gas,  wWch  shouW 
possess  an  absorptive  power  likTthat  of  the  vajTr  of  water,  th^ 
coolmg  pn^cess  would  be  in  a  great  measjxre  arrested,  and  an  effec^ 
would  be  produced  similar  to  that  of  a  screen  of  glass  ;  which  keeps 

mlLnt  rr  7'  ^"""^  '''  ^''''^^'  by  pr^venting  the  escape  of 
radiant  beat,  and  indirectly  by  hindering  the  condensation  of  the 
aqueous  vapor  m  the  air  confined  beneath. 

Now  we  haye  only  to  bear  in  mind  that  there  are  the  best  of 
reasons  for  beheving  that,  during  the  earliest  geological  periods,  aU 
of  the  Carbon  smce  deposited  in  the  fonns  of  limestone  and  of  " 
minerai  coal  existed  in  the  atmosphère  in  the  state  of  carbonic  acid 
and  we  see  at  once  an  agency  which  must  bave  aided  greatly  t^ 
s^naintam  the  e]e«ited  température  that  then  prevailed  at  the  earth's     . 
surface.*    Without  doubt  the  great  extent  of  sea,  and  the  aW^^  * 

•  [The  carbonic  acirt  contained  in  a  layer  of  pure  carbonate  of  lime  or  mar- 

thu8fl,ed  in  the  earth's  crust  nin^t  sut««s  this  n,any  time«.  but  from  the 
S  flxLin  ^rr      T  K  ™  P"'^"""»'  *»>«  «««*«"•  part  of  this  was  doubt- 

t«i!«^^  '♦?  *^''\*''"  «tn«>«Phe«  in  tbe  pal«ozoic  âge  may  not  hâve  coZ 
^Cth  /,  f^^'-^'l'-dt»"'  of  carbonic  acid.  It  must  not  be  s^^ 
dî.i  Jl'-IÏ  !f  .*''"  """*  "**P«"t«  »'  "«««rtone  which  hâve  «ince  been 
fomed  are  directly  and  immediately  due  to  the  reacUon  of  carbonic  acid  on 
the  alkaline  and  earthy  silicaU,,  of  the  n^ks.  A  lai^e  part  of  the  caZnate 
of  lime  deposited  in  later  times  wa.  doubties,  derived  fn.m  the  JnttTo^ 

TJSlZLl^V''^"'t^!''r}^°''''    "  nevertheles,  n>main,  truethat 
îi^!?".^r!!°*^!  •=4!^"*«^*'ï  o'  the  atmosphère  and  minerai  siUcatea. 
«»tt^Jrth«rôf^rTy-ame^  tfiough  small  in  amoiint,  is  stUl  going  oT^t 
■the  earth  s  surface.    M  nfe,  pages  10  and  20.)]      •  / 


'Ij!-^ 


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/"  i: 


48 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  PRIMEVAL  EABTH. 


pv. 


or  rarity  of  high  mountaÎTis,  contributed  much  towaids  the  mild 
climate  of  later  f^ges,  when  a  végétation  as  luxuriant  as  that  now 
fouijd  in  the  tropics  flourished  within  the  Arctic  circle  ;  but,  to 
thèse  "causes  must  be  added  the  influence  of  a  portion  of  carbon 
which  was  afterwards  condensed  in  the  fonns  of  coal  and  carbonate 
of  lime,  and  which  then  existed  in  the  condition  of  a  transparent 
and  permanent  gas,  mingled  with  the  atmosphère,  surroimding  the 
earth,  and  protecting  it  like  a  dôme  of  glass.  To  this  efifect  of  car- 
bonic  acid  it  is  possible  that  other  gases  may  hâve  contributed. 
The  ozone,  which  is  mingled  with  the  oxygen  set  free  from  grow- 
ing  plants,  and  the  marsh  gas,  which  ia  noW  evolved  from  decom- 
posingï  végétation  imder  conditions  similar  to  those  then  presented 
by  the  coal  fields,  may,  by  their  great  absorptive  power,  havè  very 
well  aided  to  maintain  at  the  earth's  surface  that  high  température 
the  cause  of  which  has  been  one  of  the  enigmas  of  geology. 


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\  < 


J^^i^^iÈÈé^ 


ir 


■^ 
4   *> 


^ 


V. 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  MOUNTAIN& 

(1861.) 

«eology,  it  wiU  serve  to  give  i^Z^lt^^-JL     ,  S!!?"*  '"'''*"*•  "^  »mn>ic«l 

formations,  exhibit,  towerds  the  east,  a  great  amount  of  coarL 
sédiments,  evidently  derived  from  a  wasLg  continent  and  a^ 
nearly  destitute  of  caIcam>U8  beds.  ^In  Nova  Scot^'s^  W^ 
ham  Logan  found,  by  careful  measu^ment,  14,000  feet  of  ^ 
Werous  stral»;  and  Professor  Eogers  gives  their  tW  L^ 
m  Pennsylvania  as  8,000  feet,  including  atthe  base  1,400  fS 

BIPPL    In  Missouri,  Professer  SwaUow  finds  but  640  fœfof 
c«r WerouB  strata.  and  in  lowa  their  thickness  TJTll 

matenak     In  fact,  as  Mr.  HaU  remarks,  throughout  the  whole 
p^œozoïc  penod  we  observe  a  greater  accumulation  Id  a 

ianT^l^^  thinning  westward,  and  a  depoEi  of 

Z^nTnf     ^^"'^«"^«d  material  diminishes  in  volume,  the 
amount  of  calcareous  matter  i^pidly  augments.     Mr.  Hall  con! 

ttT^^l    r-  """'  *^\^-»—  «edi-ents  were  driven 
^    J^»°^— -  *^™  already  existed  a  marine^ 
^««aa.    ^î«#h.  the  marme  limestones  pmiominating,  the 


i?.; 


"  '^s^TT'fi';-'  77f7."4;w^  t 


50 


THE  OKIGIN  OF  MQUNTAINS. 


[V. 


coal-measures  corne  to  be  of  little  importance,  and  we  hâve  a 
great  limestone  formation  of  marine  origin,  which  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  New  Mexico  occupies  the  horizon  of  the  coal, 
and,  itself  unaltered,  lests  on  crystalline  strata  like  those  of  the 
Appalachian  range.  In  tnith.  Mr.  Hall  observes,  the  carbon- 
iferous  Umestone  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  marine  formations 
of  the  continent,  and  is  characterized  over  a  much  greater  area 
by  its  marine  fauna  than  by  its  terrestrial  végétation. 

"The  accumulations  of  the  coal-period  were  the  last  that 
gave  fonn  and  contour  to  the  eastern  side  of  our  continent,  from 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ;  and  as  we 
hâve  shown  that  the  great  sedimentary  deposits  of  successive 
periods  hâve  followed  essentiaUy  the  same  course,  parallel  to 
the  mouutain  ranges,  we  naturally  inquire  :  What  influence 
this  accumulation  has  had  upon  the  topography  of  our  country, 
and  whether  the  présent  Une  of  mountain-elèvation  from  north- 
east  to  Southwest  is  in  any  way  connected  with  the  original 
accumulation  of  sédiments."  (Hall's  Pdeontology,  VoL  III.  ; 
Introduction,  p.  66.) 

The  total  Ihickness  of  the  palœozoic  strata  along  the  Appala- 
cham  chain  is  about  40,000  feet,  while  the  same  formations  in 
the  Mis'sissippi,  Valley,  including  the  carboniferous  limestone, 
which  is  wanting  in  the  east,  hâve,  according  to  Mr.  Hall,  a 
thickness  of  scarcely  4,000  feet.  In  many  places  in  this  valley 
we  find  the  palœozoic  formations  exposed,  exhibiting  hills  of 
1,000  feet,  made  up  of  horizontal  strata,  with  the  Potsdam 
sandstone  for  their  base,  and  capped  by  the  Niagara  limestone  ; 
while  the  same  strata  in  the  Appalachians  would  give  from  ten 
to  sixteen  times  that  thiQkness.  Still,  as  Mr.  Hall  remarks,  we 
hâve  there  no  mountains  of  corresponding  altitude,  that  is  to 
say,  none  whose  height,  like  those  of  the  Mississippi  valley, 
equals  the  actual  vertical  thickness  of  the  strata.  In  the  west 
there  has  been  little  or  no  disturbance,  and  the  highest  éléva- 
tions mark  essentially  the  aggregate  thickness  of  the  strata  com- 
posing  them.  In  the  disturbed  reg^pns  of  the  east,  on  the  con- 
trary,  though  we  can  prove  that  certain  formations  of  known 
thickness  are  included  in  the  mountains,  the  height  of  thèse  is 


V.] 


THE  ORIGIN  OF.  MOUNTAINS. 


-^'' 


61 


correspond  tothethLZso^rV"r*'r"''  *^«  «^«^««°"« 

-Lian  élévations  n'otr^^^^^^^^^ 
Both  in  the  east  and  wplffv,        f,^'*"*^  "''^'^^"^«^t-" 

Bt-ta  of  the  p^ozo^iranS^tT^•;^^'ï  *'^  ^^-^- 

^tem  région  been  elevated  ;ithou   foM       T.V^'''  ^'^  *^« 
.      to  make  the  base  of  the  ^^T         ^'^^'^^°g.°^  the  strata,  so  as 

level,  as  in  the  ^^X^^Y^^r^rl^'  "^^^  *^«  - 
tween  thèse  valjeys  and  iLw  ^'  îu    "^^"^'"^  «^Po^ed  be- 

would  hâve  Skt  of  40  ooo  !  ^  1"  ''''*°""  "^"' 
evidentlyeo^ondtodep^^^^^^^  th^  raountains 

carried  down  the'  bottom  ^T  T,  ''''\^®'  ^^^«^  ^ave 

nieet  them  in  the  vXr  WK  1  '"'^  "*  "'^^^  "« 
tui.  of  thèse  n^ounSdei  .^  "'"^'  *''  ^^^"'^^^  «*^- 
the  str^ta  along  cetln  itT       '"  "  '^^^  ^""«'^«"^  «^ 

du  JlyXwd^^J*  *°  '^^;  *^^*  --^-  are  pro- 
f},of  A^     '^Pneaval,  folding,  and  plication  of  the  strate   La 

shown  that  the  line  of  fb«  A  l-       .  ^^^^'  ^°'^'^«'"'  ^^^ 

gi^atestaecu^^iw'^^^^^^  ^  *^«  ^«  °^  ^^e 

barrier  is  due  tZl    ''\'7""«°^'  «^^  that  this  great  mountein- 
subTequlffl^^^^^^  °'  "^*^"^'  -d  -t  to  a"y 

it  is  comp^ed/.  ^  "P  '''  '^^"'^^^  *^^  «t^ta  of  which 

thel'osï'Lt' V^"  ^^''  ^"^"««  °"  this  subject  for 

highest  importance  toTcoSf      h  ".    ?  "'^^  ''^  «^  *h« 
mountains.     I^  2  P    "T"*  »^^««t«»ding  of  the  theory  of 
^M^Z  J^Ïl^^"i  NatoTBlist  for  BeK^mber,  llsQ,^ 


v_ 


^,^,, 


/■l 


52 


THE.OBIGm  OF  MOUNTAINS. 


[VT 


*, 
â  ' 


will  be  found  an  allusion  to  the  rival  théories  of  upheaval  and 
accumuj^atâon  as  applied  to  voicanic  mountains,  the  discussion 
between  which  we  conçoive  to  be  settled  in  fa*or  of  the  latter 
theoiy  by  the  reasonings  and  observations  of  Cîonstant-PrevoBt, 
Scrope,  and  LyelL  A  similar  view  to  the  former  apphed  to 
mountain-chains  like  those  of  the  Alps,  Pyrénées,  and  Alle- 
ghanies,  which  are  made  up  of  aqueous  sédiments,  bas  been 
imposed  upon  the  worîd  by  the  authority  of  Humboldt,  Von 
Buch,  and  Elie  de  Beaumont,  with  scarcely  a  protest.  Buffon, 
it  is  true,  when  he  explained  the  formation  of  continents  by 
the  slow  accumulation  of  détritus  beneath  the  océan,  conceived 
that  the  irregular  action  of  the  water  would  give  rise  to  great 
banks  or  ridges  of  sédiments,  which  when  raised  above  the 
waves  must  assume  the  fonn  of  mountains.  Later,  in  1832,  we 
find  De  Montlosier  protesting  against  the  elevation-hypothesis 
of  "Von  Buch,  and  maintaining  that  the  great  mountain-chain;B! 
of  Europe  are  but  the  remnants  of  continental  élévations  which 
hâve  been  eut  away  by  denudation,  and  that  the  foldings  and 
inversions  to  be  met  with  in  the  structure  of  mountains  are  to 
be  looked  upon  only  as  local  and  accidentai  , 

In  1856,  Mr.  J.  P.  Lesley  published  a  little  ,3rt5lume  entitled 
Coal  and  its  Topogrephy,  in  the  second  part  of  which  he  bas, 
in  a  few  brilliant  and  profound  chaptera,  discussed  the  princi- 
ples  of  topographical  science  with  the  pén  of  a  master.  He 
there  tells  us  that  the  mountain  lies  at  the  base  of  ail  topo- 
graphical geology.  Continents  are  but  congeries  of  mountains, 
or  rather  the  latter  are  but  fragments  of  continents,  sep- 
arated  by  valleys  which  represent  the  absence  or  removal  of 
mountain-land ;  and  again,  "mountains  terminate  where  the 
rocks  thin  out." 

The  arrangement  of  the  sedimentary  strata  of  which  moun- 
tains are  composed  may  be  either  horizontal,  synclinal,  anti- 
clinal, or  vertical,  but  firom  the  greater  action  of  diluvial  forces 
upon  anticlinals  in  disturbed  strata  it  results  that  great  moun- 
tain-chains aie  generally  synclinal  in  their  structure,  being  in 
fact  but  fragments  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  earth's  crust 
lyi^  in  iya^nahryMïd  tiras  jwBserved  from  tlœ  «testroctioa 


-V 


V] 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  MOUNTAINS. 


w 


63 


and  translation  which  hâve  exposed  ^he  lower  8tmta  in  the 
an  iclinal  vaUeys,  leaving  the  intermediate  mountains  qapped 
with  lower  Btrata.  The  effecta  of  those  gmt  and  my«teriou3 
denudn^  forcea  which  hâve  so  powerfully  modilied  the  surface 
of  the  globe  become  less  apparent  as  we  approach  the  equatorial 

T.r'rlfT.""°«^^  ^'  ^""^  ^^^  ^  *^«  Southern  portions 
of  the  ApiAlachian  chain  many  of  the  anticUnal  folds  hâve 
escaped  érosion,  and  appear  as  hills  of  an  anticlinal  ^uctui* 
The  same  thing  is  occasionally  met  with  farther  north  :  thus 
Sutton  Mountain  in  eaatern  Canada,  lying  between  two  anti- 
chnal  valleys,  has  an  anticlinal  centre,  with  two  synclinals  on 
its  opposite  dopes.  Its  form  appears  to  resuit  from  three 
antickoak,  the  middle  one  of  which  has  to  a  great  extent 
escaped  denudation.  '  6  «*»-  exrenc 

The  error  of  the  prevailing  ideaa  upon  the  nature  of  mountain 

of  the  rocky  strata  is  not  only  essential  to  the  structure  of  a 
mountain,  but  an  evidencg  of  its  having  been  formed  ^  W 

(the  latter  altogether  independently)  is  fo  hâve  seen  that  thi 

^t  the  disturbance  so  often  seen  in  the  stra4  is  neither  dé- 
pendent upon  élévation  nor  essential  to  the  formation  of  a 
mountain.  „ 

Such  was  the  state  of  the  question  when  Mr.  Hall  came  for- 
ward,  brm^ng  his  great  knowledge  of  the  sedimentary  forma- 
tions of  North  America  to  bear  upon  the  theory  of  continents 
and  moun^s.  Thèse  were  first  advanced  in  his  addre&e- 
bveied  before  the  American  Association  for  the  AdvancerSt 
ot  bcience,  as  its  président,  at  Montréal,  in  August,  1857.    This 

b^ught  forward  in  the  first  volume  of  his  Report  on  the 

faon  to  the  third  volume  of  his  Paleontology  of  New  York,  from 

=i*own  ^ï  the  différence  between  the  geographical  features  of 


t. 


qtes^*i.»it.r^'îifvi*ffr-''.i  »■< 


U-iJBâBSE^w 


54 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  M0UNTAIN8. 


[V. 


the  eastem  and  central  parts  of  North  Anjarica  is  dùrectly  con- 
nected  with  the  greater  accumulatioiCof  sédiment  along  the 
Appalachians.  He  has  further  shown  that  so^lar  fxom  local 
élévation  being  concerned  in  the  formation  of  thèse  mountains, 
the  strata  which  form  their  base  are  to  be  found  beneath  their 
foundations  at  a  much  lower  horizon  than  in  the  undiaturbed 
hills  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  aiyi  that  to  this  dépression  chiefly 
is  due  the  fact  that  the  mountains  of  the  A^palachian  range  do 
not,  like  those  hills,  exhibit  in  their  yertical  height  above  the 
sea  the  whole  accumulated  thickness  of  the  palœozoic  stratft 

which  lie  buried  beneath  their  summits 

The  lines  of  mountain-elevation  of  De  Beaumont  are,-accord- 
ing  to  Hall,  simply  those  of  original  accumulations,  which  took 
place  ftlong  current  or  shore  Unes,  and  hâve  subsequently, 
by  continental  élévations,  produced  mountain-chains.  "They 
were  not  then  due  to  a  later  action  upon  the  earth's  crust, 
but  the  course  of  the  chain  and  the  source  of  the  materiak 
were  predetermined  by  forces  in  opération  long  anterior  to 
the  existence  of  the  mountains  or  of  the  continent  of  which 
they  form  a  part."  (p.  86.) 

It  wUl  be  seen  from  what  we  hâve  said  of  BufiFon,  De  Mont- 
losier,  and  Lesley,  that  many  of  the  views  of  Mf.  Hall  are  not 
new,  but  old  ;  it  was,  however,  reserved  to  him  to  complète  the 
theory  and  give  to  the  world  a  rational  System  of  orographie 
geology.  He  modestly  says  :  "  I  believe  I  hâve  contre verted 
no  established  fact  or  principle  beyond  that  of  denying  the 
influence  of  local  elevating  forces,  and  the  intrusion  of  ancient 
or  plutonic  formations  beneath  the  lines  of  mountains,  as  ordi- 
narily  understood  and  advocated.  In  this  I  believe  I  am  only 
going  back  to  the  views  wliich  were  long  since  entertained  by 
geologiats  relative  to  continental  élévations."  (p.  82.) 

~  The  natuwii  of  the  palœozoic  sédiments  of  North  America 
clearly  shows  that  they  were  accumulated  during  a  slow  pro- 
gressive subsidçnce  of  the  ocean's  bed,  lasting  through  thô 
palœozoic  period,  and  this  subsidence,  which  would  be  greatest 
along  the  Une  of  greatest  accumulation,  was  doubtless,  as  Mr. 

"Hall  consideiB,  cosnected  with  the  tnensfer  of  sédiment  and 


\. 


.yài?jHâi^i^âjtf»ij^jfc«a^a'aî^ 


V.] 


THE  OBIGIN   OF  M0UNTA1N8. 


55 


the  irari^tions  of  local  preasure  acting  upon  the  yielding  crust 
of  the  earth,  agreeably  to  the  view  of  Sir  John  Herschel. 
Th«.^ub8idence  of  th^  ocean'a  bottom  would,  according  to 
Mr    Hall,  cause  plicatidns  in   the  soft   and  yielding  stmta. 
Lyell,  in  Bpeculating  upon  the  ^siUts  of  a  cooling  and  con- 
tracting  sea  of  molten  matter,  su^eh  as  he  imagined  might  hâve 
once  underlaid  the  Appalachians,  had  already  suggested  that 
the  incumbent  flexible  strata,  collapsing  in  obédience 'to  grav- 
ity,  would  be  forced,  if  this   contraction   took   place  along 
narrow  and  parallel  zones  of  country,  to  fold  into  a  smaUer 
space  as  they  conformed  to  the  drcmuference  of  a  smaller  arc 
"thus  enabling  the  force  of  gravity;  though  originally  exerted 
vertically,  to  bend  and  squeeze  the  rocks  as  if  they  had  been 
subjected  to  latéral  pressure."  * 

Admitting  thus  Herschel's  theoiy  of  subsidence  and  Lyell's 
theory  of  plication,  Mr.  Hall  proceeds  to  inquire  into  the  great 
System  of  foldings  presented  by  the  Appalachians.     The  sink- 
mg  along  the  line  of  greatest  accumulation  prodûces  a  vast 
synclinal,  which  is  that  of  the  mountain  ranges,  and  the  resuit 
of  such  a  smking  of  flexible  beds  wiU  be  the  production»  within 
the  greater  syncUnal  of  numerous  smaller  synclinal  and  anti- 
chnal  axes,  which  musi  graduaUy  décline  toward  the  margin 
of  the  great  synclinal  axis.  J^  procèss,  the  author  observes, 
appears  to  fumish  a  satisfacWexplanation  of  the  difi-erence 
of  slope  observed  on  the  twoliées  of  thô  Appalachian  anticli- 
nals   where  the  dipa  on  one  side  are  uniformly  steeper  than 
on  the  other.     (p.  71.)  ''        ^ 

An  important  question  hère  arises,  whieh  is  this  :  while 
admitting  ^nth  Lyell  and  Hall  th^t  parallel  foldings  may  be 
the  resu^t  of  the  subsidence  which  accompa^d  the  deposUion 
of  the  Appalachian  sédiments,  we  inquire  Irhether  the  cause 
J8  adéquate  te  produce  the  vast  and  repeated  flexures  presented 
by  the  Alleghanies:    Mr.  Billing*,  in  a  i«cent  paper  in  the    " 
Canadian  Naturalist   (Jan,,  1860),  has  endeavored  to  show 
that  the  foldmgs  thus  produced  .must  be  insignificant  when  • 
compared  withithe  great  undulations  of  strata;  whose  origin 
-, y  Tra^dsinNorthAmcrio^^Rrat  Vfait,  Vol.  r  pr78. '^ 


l  ."• 


"?\'.*:w": 


^r 


^'      , 


/    .. 


66 


THX  OBIGDf  01  MOUNTAlKS. 


V, 


Professor  Kogem.  haa  endeavored»  to  èxplain  by  hia  theory  o£ 
earthquake-waves  propagated  through  thé  igneoua  fluid  maoa 
of  the  globe,  and  rolling  up  the  flexible  crust.  We  slialt  not 
stop  to  discuas  tbia  tbeory,  but  caU  attention -to  another  agency 
,hit^erto  oyerlooked,  Which  muât  alao  cauae  contraction  and 
folding  of  the  strata,  and  to'wbich  we  Kave -aliready  elsewhere 
alluded.  (Am.  Jour.  ScL  (2),  XXX.  138.)  It  is  thé  conden- 
sation which  must  take  place  when  porous  éedimeéte  are  cou- 
verted  into  crystallifie  •  rocks  like  gneiss  and  mica-slate,  and 
Still  more  when  the  elemei}t8  of  theae  sédiments'  are  changed 
into  minerais  of  high  spécifie  gra^vity,  such  as  pyroxene,  gamet, 
epidote,  staurolite,  chipatolite,  and  chloritoid.  This  contrac- 
tion can  only  take  place  when  the  sediiiïénts  bave  becbme 
deeply  buried  and  are  undergoing  metamorphism,  and  is,  as 
many  attendant  phenomena  indicate,  connected  with  a  softened 
and  yielding  condition  .ofthe  lower  strata. 

We  hâve  now  in  this  connection  to  conaider  the  hypothesia 
which  ascribea  the  corrugation  of  portions  of  the  earth's  crust 
to  the  graduai  contraction  of  the  interior.  An  able  discussion 
of  this  view  will  be  found  in  the  American  Jpumal  of  Science 
(2),  III.  176,  frôm  the  pen  of  Mr.  J.  J^  Dana,  who,  in  co^iraon 
with  ail  othera  who  hâve  hitherto  written  on- the  subject^ 
adopts  the  notio»  of  the  igneoïw  fluidity  of  the  earth's  interior. 
"Wehave,  however,  elsewhere  given  our  reasons  for  accepting 
the  conclusion  of  Hoplçina  and  Hennesaey  that  the  earth/ 
instead  of  being  a  liquid  masa  œvered  with  a  thin  crust,  is- 
esôentially  soÙd  to  a  great  depth,  if  not  indeed  to  the  centre, 
80  that  the  volcahic  and  igneoUa  fifiw»o™«P  generally  ascribéd 
to.a  fluid  nucleus  hâve  theùr  seat,  as.^efersteia  and,  after  him, 
Sir  John  Herechel  long  aiace  «uggested,  not  in  the  anhydxous' 
aoiid  nucleus,  but  in  the  deeply  buijpd  layera  of  aqueoua  ^di- 
menta,  which,  permeated  with  water,  and  raised  to  a  high 
température;  become  reduced  to  a  state  of  more  or  less  C|m- 
plete  igneo-aqueous  fusion.  So  that  beneath  the  outer  crust 
of  s^kaents,  and  surrounding  the  solid  nucleus,  we  may  sup- 
pose a  lone  of  plaaliic  aedimehtary  material  adéquate  to  èiplain 
ail  the  phenomena  hitherto  aaanbed  to  a  fl^^d^^^g^j»»    (Q"^' 


•■/ 


( 


/•I 


TRE  ORIGIN  OP  HOtJNTAINa 


57 


^Zô     A         T^^^'  ^*'^-  •^^^^>  Canadian  Naturaliat,  Dec 
Thi'  f  l/''"'^-  ®^^  ^'>'  ^^  136;  and  a«^.  page  qV" 
Tbu.  hypothesu,,  as  we  hâve  e^eavored  to  show  ^not  on> 
c  mpletely  eonforrnable  vith.what  we  know  of  the  Ua'or 
^  Of  a^eouM^xmenta  impregnated  with  water  iTd  expos^to 
a  h.«h  tenxperatu^,  but^,„  ,  ^^  expWion  oTaU  th^ 
phenomena  of  volcauoes  and  igneons  rocks    whil«  JnV 
the  .any  difficultie..which  heset^the  hy^othi:^^?^^ 
m  a  State  of  igneous  fluidity.     At  the  same  time  any  cha„!^ 
m  volume  resujtmg  from  the  contraction-  of  the  n»cl'us3d 
affect  the  opter  crust  through  the  médium  t(  the  ^rnore  ^Z 
pk^hc  «.ne.of  sédiments.. preciBély  as  if  the  whole  i^terio^ 
of  the  globe  were  in  a  liquid  state?"  , 

The  accumulation  of  a  great  thickness  of  sédiment  alone  a 
given^ne  would   by  d^stroying  the  equilibriL  of  p^Z 
cause  the  somewh^t  flexible  crust  to  8u^^,ide;  the  lower  s^^ 
Kommg  altered  b^the  ascending  beat  of  the  nucleus  wo^d 
^staUize  and  contmct,  and  plications  weuld  thus  be  deter- 
mined  pamUel  to  the  line  of  depositioV     Thèse  foihngs  not 
^ss  t«an  the  softenix^  of.  the  bottoiû  stmta,  estabHsh  liSs  «f 
w^ness  or  o^east  résistance  in  the- earth's  crust,  apd  ta 
deternune  the  c.ntractipn  which  results  from  the  ^oohngof  ' 
the  globe  to  exhibit  itself  in  those  régions  and  along  those 
meswhere  the  ocean's  bed  is  subsiding  beneath  the  a'ccumu 
at.ng   sédiments.     Hence   we  conceive  that  the  subsTdence 
mvoked  by  Mr.  Hall  (and  by  Lyell).  aïthough  not  the  sZ 
nor  even  the  principal  cause  of  the  corrugations  «f  the  stmta 
>3  the  one  which  detemixfes  4eir  position  and  diction  W 
mkmg  the  effects  produced  by  the  contraction  n7  nly  of 
sédiments  but  of  the  earth's  nucleus  itself,  to  be  exerted X 
tùehnèsofgreatest  accumulation.  .  ** 

On  the  sul^ect  of  igneo>  rocks  'and  volcanic  phenomena,    ' 

we  know,  the  first  to  point  but,  namely,  their  connection  with 
^t  accumulations  of  sédiment,  and  that,of  active  vol  J^     - 
^h  the  newer  deposits.     We   hâve  elsewhere  said  •  "The 
^Qlcamc  phenomena  of  the  dayapp^wfel^,^^^,^^   ^ 


* 


* .  / 


58 


THE  ORIGIN  OP  MÔUNTAINS. 


V.) 


to  be  confined  to  régions  of  newer  secondaiy  and  tertiary 
deposits,  which  we  may  suppose  the  central  heat  to  be  still 
penetrating  (as  shown  by  Mr.  Babbage),  a  process  which  bas 
long  since  ceased  in  the  palseozoic  régions."  *  To  the  accu- 
mulation of  sédiments  then  we  referred  both  modem  volcanoes 
and  ancient  pluWnic  rocks  ;  thèse  latter,  like  lavas,  we  regard 
in  ail  cases  as  but,altered  and  displaced  sédiments,  for  which 
reason  we  bave  called  them  exotic  rocks.  (Am.  Jour,  Sel  (2), 
XXX.  133.)  Mr.  Hall  réitérâtes  thèse  views,  and  calls  atten- 
tion moreover  to  the  fact  that  the  greatest  outbursts  of  igneous 
rock  in  the  varions  formations  appear  to  be  in  ail  cases  con- 
nected  with  rapid  accumulatioi^  over  limited  areas,  causing 
perhaps  disruptions  of  the  crust,  through  which  the  semi-fluid 
stratum  may  bave  risen  to  the  surface.  He  cites  in  this  con- 
nection the  traps  with  the  palœozoic  sandstones  of  L^e  Supe- 
rior,  and  with  the  mesozoic  sandstones  of  Nova  Scotia  and  the 
Connecticut  and  Hudson  Valleys. 

•  Ante,  pp.  9  and  17. 


ii 


ivÉLt-.    •^lilkiKA-M^iiii.T- ».i  ,v- 


Aj^»  i-|^«^jj(^.-'     •'-'"f'^'; 


^'«i&r^^ks '*Jt£«^ 


-« 


VI. 


THE    PROBABLE    SEA«OF   VOLCANIC 


ACTIO 

0869.)    .  ,^  ' 

hère  reproduced.  It  ta,  as  wm -^8^^  ta  JT  ;  ?  '  *""*"""''  '^"'  '^^''ch  it  U 
«ivanced  in  impers  I.  ak^lï;  b^tT^TCdi^t'  "  "'•"'^-<"-«'''  «^  the  views 
beenthoughtpropertoreprintitenuTIrtt  ^^i^*  ^pétitions  Involved,  it  has 
dation  of  the  suffect  I^^e  app:nS^IlÎ!,*!''%"'^  •=™*«''*-  1»  further  eluci- 
1869.  before  the  An^erican  GeôSSlTietyt^Ner'v  "J'''""  «'^''"  '«  '^^'^' 
PrtH^eedlnga.  In  wWch  the  dUtribution  of  vSc  and  «i  J'"^  ""v.*"  P"^"*^*^  *"  "« 
Jldered.  voicanic  and  platonlc  phenomena  are  eon- 

THEigneous  theor^^f  t^^rth's  crust,  which  supposes  îtto 
hâve  been  at  one  tùnë  a  fused  mass,  and  to  still  S  in  i^ 
mtenor  a  gr^at  degree  of  beat,  is  now  generally  admTtted  In 
or^er  to  explain  the  origin  of  eruptive  Lks,  th'e  pb^nt ena  f 
volcanoe,  and  the  «.ovements  of  the  earth's  cn^st!  aU  oT^icî 

he  ZT:t  ^'  ^.^¥«*«  *«  ^«P-d  "P-  the  in^mal  heat    f 
the  earth  three  pnncipal  hypothèses  hâve»  been  put  forwarf 

stm  un^  T.      ^""^  ^"^  ^""°«^'  ^h^«h  ^«te  upon  the 

hlf  00™.!^   Il""^'''  ^'''^'  «"PP««««  «oMification  to 

blTe  soS  tl  "''"'"^'^"'^^  ^^°^  thelast.portions 
Decame  sohdified  there  was  produced,  it  is  conceived,  a  condi- 
tion of  xmperfect  hquidity.  pr«venting  the  çinking  of  the  Zled 

rirJ!!;:^,^.'^^^^^^^  ^ownwai^s.     There  ;ould 


ih»c\.         1      ,  ,     "^  i'*"*'CDu  uownwaras.     There  would 


0 


:-:Jâi«È; 


i4.A<^:i>'JxÂ4Jk{'i-Uii^!-^-J*^  .^ 


U: 


60    '      THE  PROBABLE  SEAT  OF  VOLCANIC  ACTION.  [Vl/ 

portion  of  uncongealed  matter,  which,  according  to  Hopkins, 
may  be  supposed  stiU  to  retain  its  liquid  condition,  and  to  be 
the  seat  of  volcanic  action,  whether  existing  in  isolated  réser- 
voirs or  subterranean  lakes  ;  or  whether,  as  suggested  by  Scrope, 
forming  a  continuons  sheet  surrounding  the  soUd  nucleus, 
whose  existence  is  thus  conciliated  with  the  évident  facts  of  a 
flexible  crust,  and  of  liquid  ignited  raatters  beneath. 

Hopkins,  in  the  discussion  of  this  question,  insisted  i;pon  the 
fact,  estabhshed  by  his  experiments,  that  pressure  favors  the 
soUdification  of  matters  which,  like  rocks,  pass  in  melting  to  a 
less  dense  condition,  and  hence  concludes  that  the  pressure 
existing  at  great  depths  must  bave  induced  soUdification  of  the 
molten  mass  at  a  température  at  which,  under  a  less  pressure, 
it  would  bave  remained  liquid.  Mr.  Scrope  bas  followed  this 
up  by  the  ingenious  suggestion  that  the  great  pressure  upon 
parts  of  the  solid  igneous  mass  may  become  telaxed  from  the 
effect  of  local  movements  of  the  earth's  crust,  causing  portions 
of  the  solidified  matter  to  pass  immediately  into  the  Ijquid 
State,  thus  giving  rise  to  eruptive  rocks  in  régions  where  ail 
before  was  solid.* 

Similar  views  hâve  been  put  forward  in  a  note  by  Eev.  0. 
Fisher,  and  in  an  essay  on  the  formation  of  mountain-chains, 
by  N.  S.  Shaler,  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society  of 
NatuKd  History,  both  of  which  appear  in  the  Geological  Maga- 
zine for  November  last  As  summed  up  by  Mr.  Shaler,  the 
^second  hypothesis  supposes  that  the  earth  "consists  of  an 
immense  soUd  nucleus,  a  hardened  outer  crust,  and  an  inter- 
mediate  région  of  comparatively  slight  depth,  in  an  imperfect 
State  of  igneous  fusion."  In  this  connection  it  is  curious  to 
remark  that,  as  pointed  out  by  Mr.  J.  Cliflon  Ward,  in  the 
same  Magazine  for  December  (p.  581),  HaUey  was  led,  from 
the  study  of  terrestrial  magnetism,  to  a  similar  hypothesis. 
He  supposed  the  existence  of  two  magnetic  pôles  situated  in  the 
earth's  out«r  crust,  and  two  others  in  an  interior  mass,  sepa- 
rated  from  the  solid  envelope  by  a  fluid  médium,  and  revolving, 
♦  8e«  8oTOp«  On  Volcaaoe»*  «»à  hk  fiMBmuBicftttpn  to  the  Geologioal 


azine  for  December,  1868. 


lA'-t 


•  'vh^iinit^^^^'^tit  iiki.À^u^,jii^^^^,ài 


VI.]  THE  PROBABLE  SEAT  OF  VOLCANIC  ACTION.  61 

by  a  veiy  smaU  degree,  slower  than  the  outer  crust.*     The 
same  conclusion  was  subsequently  adopted  by  Hansteen. 

The  fonnation  of  a  soUd  layerat  the  surface  of  the  viscid  and 
nearly  congealed  mass  of  the  cooUng  globe,  as  supposed  by  the 
advocates  of  the  second  hypothesis,  is  readUy  admissible   That 
•  this  process  should  commence  when  the  remainiug  envelope  of 
hquid  was  yet  so  deep  that  the  réfrigération  from  that  time  to 
the  présent  has  not  been  sufficient  for  its  entire  soUdification, 
is,  however,  not  so  probable.     Such  a  crust  on  the  cooling 
superficial  layer  would,  from  the  contraction  conséquent  on  th« 
further  réfrigération  of  the  liquid  stïatum  beneath,  become 
more  or  less  depressed  and  corrugated,  sq  that   there  would 
probably  resuit,  as  I  bave  elsewhere  said,  «an  irregular  diver- 
sified  surface  from  the  contraction  of  the  congealing  mass, 
which  at  last  formed  a  Uquid  bath  of  no  great  depth,  surround- 
ing  the  soUd  nucleu8."t    Gealogical  phenomena  do  not,  how- 
ever, in  my  opinion,  afford  any  évidence  of  the  existence  of  yet 
unsohdified  portions  of  the  originally  liquid  material,  but  are 
more  sunply  explained  by  the  third  hypothesis.     This,  like 
the  last,  supposes  the  existence  of  a  soUd  nucleus  and  of  an 
outer  cruat,  with  an  interposed  layer  of  partially  fluid  matt«r  : 
which  is^not,  however,  a  still  unsolidified  portion  of  the  once 
hquid  globe,  but  consists  of  the  outer  part  of  the  congealed 

SaniLl"^'  .'^"'^'^  ^d  ^odified  by  chemical  and 
mechanical  agencies,  mipregnated  with  water,  and  in  a  state  of 
igneo-aqueous  fusion. 

The  history  of  this  view  forms  an  inter«sting  chapter  in 
geology.    As  remarked  by  Humbôldt,  a  notion  Lt  volli^c 

are  dépendent  on  the  combustion  of  oiganic  subsianoes.  belongs 
of  M  TrtJe  Jl™^  ^I!^?"'"*  "'  magnetism.  In  a  «cent  ex^rimeS 
When  hquid  at  a  température  of  1 


t  Ante,  page  88. 


>  *"«^  retained  its  ntagnetism  while 


icw,T%ernary,  1869.) 


.iOrj. 


■^il^^^:nff^m^T4Ji4^iJlJU&^^-^  l'iu  ,î*-,i  «•   j«»i  «,# , 


^^^p?^''^^-" '■  ■"■ 


62  THE  PROBABLE  SEAT  OF  VOLCANIO  ACTION.  [VL 

to.  the  infancy  of  geobgy.    To  this  period  belong  the  théories 
of  Lémery  and  Breislak.    (Cosmos,  V.  443  ;  Otté's  translation.) 
Keferstein,  in  his  NaturgeschicMe  des  Erdkorpers,  published  in 
1834,  maintained  that  ail  crystalline  non-stratified  rocks,  from 
granité  to  lava,  are  products  of  the  transformation  of  sediment- 
ary  jstrata,  in  part  very  récent,  and  that  there  is  no  well-defined 
liue  to  be  drawn  between  •  neptunian  and  volcanic  rocks',  since 
they  pass  into  each  other.     Volcanic  phenomena,  according  to 
him,  hâve  their  origiu  not  in  an  igneous  fluid  centre,  nor  in  an 
oxidizing  metaUic  nucleus   (Davy,  Daubeny),  but  in  known 
sedimeutary  formations,  where  they  are  the  resuit  of  a  peculiar 
kind  of  fermentation,  which  crystallizM  and  arranges  in  new 
forms  the  éléments  of  the  sêdimentâry%trata,  with  an  évolu- 
tion of  heat  as  a  resuit  of  the  chemical  pf  ocess.   (Naturgeschichte, 
Vol.  I.  p.  109  ;  also  Bull.  Soc.  GeoL  de  France  (1),  Vol.  VII. 
p.  197.)    In  commenting  upon  thèse  views  (Am.  Jour.  Science, 
July,  1860),  I  hâve  remarked  that,  by  ignoring  the  incandea- 
cent  nucleus  as  a  source  of  héat,  Keferstein  has  excluded  the 
true  exciting  cause  of  the  chemical  changes  which  take  place  in 
the  buried  sédiments.    The  notion  of  a  subterranean  combus- 
•   tion  or  fermentation,  as  a  source  of  heat,  is  to  be  réjected  as 
irrational. 

A  view  identical  with  that  of  Keferstein,  as  to  the  seat 
of  volcanic  phenomena,  was  soon  after  put  forth  by  Sir  John 
Herschel,  in  a  letter  to  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  in  1836.  (Proc. 
Geol.  Soc.  London,  II.  548.)  StartW  from  the  suggestions 
of  Scrope  and  Babbage,  that  the  isotïïërmal  horizons  in  the 
earth's  cnist  must  rise  as  a  conséquence  of  the  accumulation 
of  sédiments,  he  insisted  that  deeply  buried  strata  will  thus 
become  crystallized  by  heat,  and  may  eventually,  with  their  in- 
cluded  water,  be  raised  to  the  melting  point,  by  which  process 
gases  would  be  generated,  and  earthquakes  and  volcanic  érup- 
tions follow.  At  the  same  time  the  mechanical  disturbance  of 
the  equilibrium  of  pressure,  conséquent  upon  a  transfer  of  sédi- 
ments while  the  yielding  surface  reposes  on  matters  partly 
^liquefied,  will  expWn  the  movementa  of  ekvatjonmd  AuMdence 
of  the  earth's  crust.     Herschel  was  probably  ignorant  of  the 


/^ 


■f^. 


•  !!»*.•■_  fvia^fe'iattliJii  j  fei»'*4"SS, 


t 


J  * 


^^  ÎA^t»?  îî^ï'i^-lïJtfe  ^i  -^w 


\ 


VI.]      .   THE  PROBABLE  SEAT  OF  VOLCANIC  ACTION.  63 

ejteïrt  to  which  his  views  had  been  anticipated  by  Keferstein  • 
i»*^d  the  suggestions  of  the  one  and  the  other  seemed  to  hâve 
/passed  xmnoticed  by  geologists  untU,  in  Marc»,  1858,  I  repro- 
duced  tbem  m  a  paper  read  before  the  CanLiian  Institute 
(loronto) 'being  at  that  tùne  acquainted  with  Herschel's  letter 
but  not  haymg  met  with  the  writings  of  Keferstein.  I  he^ 
considered  the  reaction  which  would  take  place  under  the  i^ 
fluence  of  a  high  température  in  sedimeW  permeated  with 
water,  and  contaimng,  besides  sUicious  and  aluSnous  mattei^, 

F^rtt^'  'Ï'    *"k  "'''"'"  ^"^  carbonaceous  substances 
From  thèse,  it  was  shown,  might  be  produced  ail  the  gaseoua  ' 
enianations  of   volcanic   districts,   while  from   aqueo-x^o.^ 
fusion  of  the  varions  admixtures  might  resuit  the^reat  variety 
of  eruptive   rocks.     To   quote   the  words  of  my  paper  just 
referred  to  :  "  We  conceive  that  the  earth's  solid  cnisr^f  anhy- 
drous  and  pnmitive  igneous  rock  is  every where  deeply  concealed 
beneath  its  own  ruins,  which  form  a  great  mass  of  sédiment, 
ary  strata,  permeated  by  water.     As  hfeat  from  beneath  invades 
thèse  sédiments,  it  produces  in  them  that  change  which  con- 
stitutes  nonnal  metamorphism.     Thèse  rocks,  at  a  sufficient 
depth,   are   necessarily  in  a  state   of  igneo-aqueous  fusion; 
and  m  the  event  of  fiacture  in  the  overlying  strata,  may  rise 
among  them,  taking  the  form  of  eruptive  rocks.     When  the 
nature  of  the  sédiments  is  such  as  to  gonerate  great  amounts  of 
elastic  fluids  by  their  fusion,  earthquakes  and  volcanic  éruptions 

inay  resuit,  and  thèse  —  other  things  being  equal will  be 

most  likely  to  occur  under  the  more  récent  formations."     (Cana- 
dian  Journal,  May,  1868,  Vol.  III.  p.  207  ;  and  atUe,  page  9.) 
The  same  views  are  insisted   upon  in  a  paper  On  some 
Points  in  Chemical  Geology  (Quar.  Jour.  Geol.  Soc.,  London, 
Nov.,  1859,  Vol.  XV.  p.  594),  and  hâve  since  b^n  repeatedly 
put  forward  by  me,  with  further  explanations'aa  td  what  I     , 
hâve  designated  above,  tJu  ruins  of  the  cnut  of  a^ydrmu  and 
primitive  igneom  rock     This,  it  is  concejved,  must,  by  contrat 
tion  in  cooling,  hâve  become  porous  and  perméable,  for  a  con- 
Biderable  depth,  to  the  waters  afterwards  pm^itated  npon  lis  ^ 
floflSèe.    Tn  this  way  it  was  prepaied  aUke  for  mechanical  dis- 


^^M^l».  ÏM  i  '*^J*'4-^%«im'^A.^^  '^  -iJiJl .  j'Ai4i-'lM.^ 


'À  SJv-'^À^<-^. 


■•  H-": 


ir  4iV  ^*5ste 


!f^^^^^'i-tff'rr:-fh:i-<'i-'ii'''''X'^^^^^ 


r 


64  THE  PROBABLE  SEAT  07  VOLCAOTO  ACTION.  VI.] 

infogration,  and  for  the  chendcal  action  of  the  «^i^?' ^^«^'^ 
etr  in  the  t^.o  papers  just  referred  to,  must  hâve  been  p««. 
enîrXe  air  and  Sxe  waters  of  the  time.     It  is,  moreover.  not 
^"bable  that  a  yet  unsoUdifled  sheet  of  molten  matter  nmy 
Z^have  existed  beneath  the  earth's  crust,  and  may  hâve  m- 
temnelin  the  volcanic  phenomena  of  that  early  penod  con- 
SS   by  its  extravasation,  to  sweU  the  vast  amount  of 
It^UL  then  brought  withi.  X'^l'^^t'u^ln 
influences     The  earth,  air,  and  water  thus  made  to  react  upon 
SX,  constitute  the  first  niattor  from  wh.ch  by  mechan- 
";  and  Chemical  l^nsformations,  the  whole  mmeral  world 
known  to  us  bas  been  produced. 
Tu   he  lower  portions  of  this  great  disintegrated  and^ter- 
impregnated  mass  which  fonn,  according  to  the  présent  hypoth. 
ZXsemi-Uquid  layer  supposed  to  intervene  between  the 
"ter  soUd  cm^  and  the  inner  soUd  and  anhydrous  nucleus. 
"to  ol^n  a  correct  notion  of  the  condition  of  thas  ^ 
both  in  earlier  and  later  times,  two  points  must  be  ^p^mUy 
considered,  -  the  relation  of  température  to  depth,  and  that  of 
li^rto  pressure.     It  being  conceded  that  the  increa^e 
ô™rature'in  descending  m  the  earth's  cnist  -  due  to^the 
transmSion  and  escape  of  beat  from  the  intenor,  Mr  Hppk^ 
Bhowed  mathematicaUy  that  there  existe  a  constant  V^Y=>^^1 
between  the  effect  of  internai  beat  at  the  surface  and  the  rate  at 
which  the  température  increases  in  descendu^.    Thus,  at^ 
présent  time,  whUe  the  mean  température  at  the  earth  s  surface 
\  augmented  only  about  one  twentieth  of  a  degree  Fahrenhei^, 
by  the  escape  of  beat  from  below,  the  increase  is  found  to  be 
equal  to  about  one  degree  for  each  sixty  feet  m  depth.    1^ 
Swever,  we  go  back  to  a  period  in  the  history  of  our  globe 
wheu  the  beat  passing  upwards  through  its  crust  was  sufficien 
to  raise  thç  superficie  température  twenty  times  as  much  as  at 
présent,  that  is  to  say,  one  degree  of  Fahrenheit  the  augm^- 
tetion  of  beat  in  descending  would  be  twenty  tunes  as  great 
as  now,  or  one  degree  for  each  three  feet  in  depth.   ^^"^^^^^ 
=.=.^  VIIL  69.)    The  condusion  i.  ineviteble  ^  a  con^ 


Tthings  must  bave  exUted  during  long  penods  m  the  history 


*;,  •â<,)îi.4ïSiLiviiA£É 


t.sSPSf«î?«!»0»wrv- 


VI.]  THE  PROBABLE  SEAT  OP  VOLCANIC  ACTION.  65 

of  the  cooIiBg  globe  when  the  accumulation  of  comparatively 
nse  to  ail  the  phenomena  of  metamorphism,  vulcanicitv  TL 

Corning  in  the  next  place,  to  consider  the  influence  ôf  press- 
ure  upon  the  buried  materials  derived  from  the  n..cl2^  «î^ 
Chemical  d.zntegmtion  of  the  primitive  cruBt,  we  find  tW  by 
the  présence  of  heated  water  throughout  them,  they  are  ptced 
;^der  conditions  very  unlike  those  of  the  original  cL^/mi 
While  pre^u:^  raines  the  fusing  point  of  such  bodies  as  fxlTd 
ni  passnig  into  the  liquid  state,  it  depresses  that  point  for  those 
which,  like  ice,  contract  in  becoming  liquid.     The  same  pZ 
^ple  extends  to  that  liquéfaction  which  constitutes^hXn 
where   as  is  with  few  exceptions  the  case,  the  process  is  al' 
tended  with  condensation  or  diminution  ôf  volume  Treiut 
wm,  as  shown  by  the  expérimente  of  Sorby,  augment  tCol^ 
eut  Power  of  the  Uquid.*     Under  the  influence  of^he  devated 
JT  r  "' .^^^  ^*  P""^  -^i^^  prevaU'at  cordée 

water  which  they  contain,  acquire  a  certain  degree  of  liquidity 
^dering  not  improbable  the  suggestion  of  Sreei^r,  t'i^t  the' 
présence  of  five  or  ten  per  cent  of  water  may  suffice,  at  temlr 
a^^  approaching  redness,  to  give  ^  a  gi.nL  mas^  a  liquX 

W^TheT;  '">:  t^f-^-  ig-— d  an  ^eo^ 
fmon.     The  studies  by  Mr.  Sorby  of  the  cavities  in  fatals 
hâve  led  him  to  conclude  that  the  constituente  of  granit^and 
Mytic  rocks  hâve  crystellized  in  the  présence  of  l^^d  water 
under  gréa    pressure,  at  températures  not  above  reLl   anS 

Irt  /^V      r°*''°  "^  ^*"^  ''^  «^^^»  «q^idity  to  lavas 

th?.         .  '     1  ^''°  "^""^^^  ^y  ««'^P^'  «"d,  notwithstandin^ 

he  opposition  of  plutoniste  like  Duhx^her,  Fou;^et,  and  B^^ 

«  referred  to  the  Geological  Magazine  for  Febniary,  I868rpl^ 
^r^here  the  histoiy  of  this  t^uestion  ia  discusseiL  ^^ 


Sorby,  Bakerian  Lecture,  Royal  Society,  1863. 


X 


MM?^-iii..-'rJ:    •■ 


66  THE  PROBABLE  SEAT  OP  VOLCANIC  ACTION.  VI.] 

It  may  hère  be  remarked,  that  if  we  regard  the  liquéfaction 
of  heated  rocks  under  great  pressure,  and  in  présence  of  water, 
as  a  process  of  solution  rather  than  of  fusion,  it  would  foUow 
that  diminution  of  pressure,  as  supposed  by  Mr.  Scrope  would 
cause,  not  liquéfaction,  but  the  reverse.  The  mechamcal  press- 
ure of  great  accumulations  of  sédiment  is  to  be  regarded  as  co- 
op^tiug  with  beat  to  augment  the  solvent  action  of  the  water, 
and  as  being  thus  one  of  the  efficient  causes  of  the  hquefaction 
of  deeply  buried  sedipientary  rocks.  -  . 

That  water  intervenes  not  only  in  the  phenomena  of  volcamc 
éruptions,  but  in  the  crystalli-atioit  of  the  mineras  of  eruptive 
rocks,  which  bave  been  formed  at  températures  far  below  that 
of  igneous  fusion,  is  a  fect  not  easily  Jeconciled  with  either  the 
first  or  the  second  hypothesis  of  volcanic  action,  bu^  is  m  per- 
fect  accordance  with  the  one  hère  maintained,  yhich  is  also 
strongly  supported  by  the  study  of  the  chémi^l  composition 
of  i^ieous  rocks.     Thèse  are  generally  referred  to  two  gi^t 
divisions,  corresponding  to  what  bave  been  designated  the 
trachytic  and  pyroxenic  types,  and  to  account  for  theu:  ongrn 
"     a  séparation  of  a  Uquid  igneous  mass  beii«^th  the  earths  cru^t 
into  two  layers  of  acid  and  basic  silicates  was  imagmed  by 
PhiUips,  Durocher,  and  Bunsen.    The  latter,  as  is  well  known, 
has  calculated  the  normal  composition  of  thèse  supposed  traohy^ic 
and  pyroxenic  magmas,  and  conçoives  that  from  them,  exthe^ 
sepamtely  or  by  admixture,  the  vanous  eruptive  rocks  are  d^ 
Z^rZ  that'the  amoùnte  of  alumina,  Urne,  ma^es^  and 
alkaU^  sustain  a  constant  relation  to  the  sihca  in  the  loct   It, 
Wer   we  examine  the  analyses  of  iàe  «-P^J-^  ^ 
Hunear^  and  Armenia,  made  by  Streng,  and  put  forward  in 
fu3Vthis  View,  Âere  will  be  found  such  discrepancies 
Si  the  actué  and  the  calculated  resuite  as  to  throw  grave 

doubte  on  Bunsen's  hypothesis.  ,  ^v_„,;cal 

Two  things  become  apparent  from  a  study  of  the  chemicaJ 

nat^of  eltive  rocks  :&st,  that  their  composition  présente 

^Tv^iS  as  are  irreconcUable  with  ttie  simp  e  on^  gen- 

:Sy  ^ed  to  themj  and,  second,  thatit  «  «-^«^«^ 
^  •  ,Who8ehiatoiyandoï^ftis,miH08t««e8r 


fit%^ 


ftÂJvif^   >/''.^ifB'-y^j 


ifi'^iaakù^i  ^Isu^Wm^ 


wgKSwaftTSSawwwwwi" 


VtJ 


DISTRIBUTION  OP  VOLCANOES. 


67 


not  difficult  to  trace.     I  hâve  elsewhere  pointed  out  how  the 
natural  opération  of  mechanical  and  chemical  agencies  tends  to 
produce  among  sédiments  a  séparation  into  two  classes,  co^ 
responding  to  the  two  great  divisions  above  noticed.    From  the 
mode  of  their  accumulation,  however,  great  variations  must 
exist  m  the  composition  of  the  sédiments,  corresponding  to 
many  of  the  varieties  presented  by  eruptive  rocks.     Thp  care- 
ful  study  of  stratified  rocks  of  aqueous  origin  discloses,  ià^md- 
dition  to  thèse,  the  existence  of  deposits  of  basic  sUicates  of 
pecuhar  types.     Some  of  thèse  are  in  great  part  magnesian, 
others  consist  of  compounds  like  anorthite  and  labradorite, 
highly  aluminous  basic  silicates  in  which  lime  and  soda  enter 
to  the  almost  complète  exclusion  of  magnesia  and  other  bases  ' 
while  in  the  masses  of  pinite  or  agalmatolite-rock  we  hâve  a 
sumlar  aluminous  siKcate,  in  which  lime  and  magnesia  are 
wantmg,  and  potash  is  the  prédominant  alkali.     In  such  sédi- 
ments Êts  thèse  just  enumerated  we  find  the  représentatives  of 
eruptive  rocks  like  peridotite,  phonoUte,  leucitophyre,  and  simi- 
kr  rocks,  which  are  so  many  exceptions  in  the  basic  group  of 
Bunsen.    As,  however,  they  are  represented  in  the  sédiments 
of  the  earth's  crust,  their  appearance  as  exotic  rocks,  conséquent 
upon  a  softening  and  extravasation  of  the  more  easUy  liquéfiable 
strata  of  deeply  buried  fonaations,  is  reftdUy  and  simply  ex- 
plamed.  f  J    ^ 


APPENDIX. 

DISTRIBUTION   OF  VOLOANOBS. 

Wk  regard  the  extravasation  of  igneous  mattêr,  whether  as  lava 
or  ashes  at  tbe  sur&ce.  or  as  plutonic  rock  in  the  midst  of  strata,  2 
in  ite  wider  sensé,*  manifestation  of  vulcanicity  ;  and,  for  the  elo! 
cidataon  of  our  sùbject,  consider  both  those  régions  characterized  by 

C         T*"  ""^  P^^*^"r  rock  iy^er  géologie  periods,  and 

those  now  the  seats  of  volcanic  aâ^which,  inth^L£^  can 

^r^  be  faaced  back  fm^àhuS^into  the  tert^^  To 

^^^ T«tH  the  latter,  mirét  and  most  important  is  thTg^t  con! 


/- 


68 


DISTRIBUTION   OP  V0LCAN0E8. 


[VI. 


tinental  regipn  which  may  be  deacribed  as  including  the  Mediterra- 
nean  and  Aralo-Caspian  basins,  extending  from  the  Iberian  penihsula 
eastward  to  the  Thian-Chan  Mountains  of  central  Asia.  In  this 
great  belt,  extending  over  about  ninety  degreea  of  longitude,  are 
included  ail  the  historié  volcanoes  of  the  ancient  world,  to  which 
we  must  add  the  extinct  volcanoes  of  Murcia,  Catalonia,  Auvergne, 
the  Vivarais,  the  Eifel,  Hungiuy,  etc.,  some  of  which  hâve  probably 
been  active  during  the  hiunan  periotl. 

It  is  a  most  significant  fact  that  this  région  is  hearly  coextensive 
with  that  occupied  for  âges  by  the  great  civilizing  races  of  the 
world.    From  the  plateau  of  central  Asia,  throughout  their  west-»* 
ward  migration  to  the  .pillars  of  Hercules,. the  Indo-European  na- 
tions were  familiar  with  the  volcano  and  the  earthquake  ;  and  that 
the  Semitic  race  wçre  not  strangers  to  the  sanie  phenomena,  the 
whole  poetic  imagery  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  bears  ample  évi- 
dence.   In  the  language  of  their  writers,  the  mountains  are  mol- 
ten  ;  they  quake  and  fall  down  at  the  présence  of  thè  Deity,  when 
the  melting  fire  bumeth.    The  fury  of  his  wrath  is  poured  forth 
like  lire  ;  he  touchéth  the  hills  and  they  smoke  ;  while  fire  and  sul- 
phur  come  down  to  destroy  the  doomed  cities  of  theplain,  whose 
foundation  is  a  molten  flood.     Not  less  does  the  poetry  and  the 
mythofogy  of  Greece  and  of  Rome  bear  the  impress  of  that  nether 
realm  of  fire  in  which  the  volcano  and  the  earthquake  hâve  their 
seat.     The  influence  of  thèse  is  conspicuous  throughout  the  Imagi- 
native literature  and  the  religions  Systems  of  the  Indo-European 
nations,  whose  contact  with  terrjbfe  manifestations  of  unseen  forces 
beyond  their  foresight  or  conÉrol  could  not  fail  to  act  stïongly  on 
their  moral  and  intellectual  dèvelopment  ;  which  would  hâve  doubt- 
less  presented  very  differeiit  ][)ha8es  had  the  early  home  of  thèse 
races  been  in  Australia  or  on  the  éastem  side  of  the  American  conti- 
nent, where  volcanoes  are  unknown,  and  earthquakes  are  scarcely 
felt.  .  '" 

Besides  the  great  région  just  indicHted,  must  be  mentiOne^,  that 
of  our  own  Pacific  slope,  from  Fuegia  to  Alaska,  wlience,  along  the 
eastem  shore  of  Asia,  a  linejf  volcanic  activity  éxtends  to  the 
buming  mountains  of  the  IndîKi  archipelago.  Volaanic  islands  are'Ç 
widely  scattered  over  «fie  Pacific  basin,  and  volcanoes  are  conspicu- 
ous in  the  Antarctic  continent  The  Atlantic  area  is  in  like  man- 
ner  marked  by  volcanic  islands  froip  Jan.  Mayen  and  Iceland  to  the 
•Canaries,  the  Azores,  and  the  Caribbean  IsUtnds,  and  southward  to 
,   Ascension,  St  Helena,  and  Tristan  d'Acimha.  y 


\i 


VI.] 


DISTEIBpriON  QF  VOLCANOES. 


6D 

lation  of  not  less  than  Zî^  f    .^  «ubaidence,  and  an  accumu- 
pJœozoic  period     tL«  ^5  ^^^"ce  southwarda,  during  the 

Bome  tune  afte/^ Tlc^^  To    L    ^  dunng  this  period  and  for 

thedeposAof  piitraJLî::r::îeL'tLr  ^PP"^**^   ' 

Mississippi  Valley  are  probably  "1  tZxT^  t  r''  T.'^  î"  '^' 
Conformablv  with  thi/ih  '^^  ^^®*  "^  thickness. 

OU8  rocsfl,  attest  the  connection  bet*ppn  mv.of  „  ,  ,/   *' 

plutonic  phenoména.  ^^*  accumulation  and 

actiX'TnT  *'  """^T  ^"^""'^  ^«  fi"<^  *enk  in  their  greatest 

of  mesozoic  and  tertiary  sedimenT,  2oZ  tt  «r  J^^^^^^^^^ 
Tpil  "  '"'r*  **^'  *'«  greatVo^ntain  zon    whThl cS 
the  Pyrénées,  the  Alps,  the  Caucàsus,  and  the  Himalaya^?  \ 

dunng  the  later  secondaiy  and  tertiaiy  période,  a  bas^rw^ch  ^" 

vjt  dépositions  were  taking  place,  as  in  the  Ap^alacH  l^lt  dS         " 
hfÏmeri^rfT    '^""^°S  to  the  other'^.ntinental  re^o" 
duri^ the^^         "^^'  '^'}^  ^^'^^"^  «^  ^'  accumulation     , 
shoi  tLrr  ^"?^«  "''.  fo^d  throughout  its  whole  extent, 
showing  that  the  great  Pacific  mountain-belt  of  North  and  South 

^Snt       '""  ^y^'  -^--0-'^  i°^the  main,  the  geolo^ 
A^lTlS!)     ^^^"'^^^^^«^«"'^Gteographical  Society, 


f 


i 


4> 


VIL 


ON    SOME    POINTS    IN    DYNAMICAL 
,        GEOLOGY. 

The  following  paper,  whlch  âppeared  In  the  American  Journal  of  Science  for  April, 
1873,  may  be  read  as  a  «upplMnent  to  EiwaSrs  I.,  II.,  V.,  and  VI.  in  the  p^eaent  Tolume. 
Neariy  ail  of  the  vlewa  which  I  hay»  maintained  alnce  1868 -IMl  in  my  endeavon  to 
reconitrûot  dynainJoal  geology  où  a  new  baaia,  a*  set  fortli  in  the  essays  Just  refcrred 
to,  hâve  of  Ute  béen  appropriated,  without  récognition,  perhaps  unconsclou«ly,  by 
LeOonte,  Hallét,  and  others;  wjd  therefore  some  assertion  of  ptlority  on  my  part 
seemed  not  ont  of  place,  m^plàder  n»ay  also  consult  In  thls  connection  Professor  J. 
D.  Dana's  essay  on  The  Rtmlts  of  ihe  Earth's  Contraction  on  Cooling,  in  the  Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Science  foï  June-SeptemW,  1873,  and  ftirther  a  note  hi  the  same 
Journal  for  November,  1878  (page  381).  oontaining  hU  aclcnowledgnient  of  my  claims  to 
priority  on  Important  polqta  which  he  had  denled  me  in  the  essay  In  queation. 

In  hia  late  essay  on  The  Formation  of  the  Features  df  the 
Earth's  Crust,  in- the  American  Journal  of  Science  for  Novem- 
ber and  December,  1872,  Professor  Joseph  LeConte  bas  dis- 
cussed  awide  range  of  subjects  in  gëological  (Jfnamrcs,  in  a 
manner  for  which  the  studont  cannot  but  be  gr^teful.  After 
a  considération  of  the  arguments  with  reg^çd  to  the  nature  of 
the  earth's  interior,  he  arrives  at  the  coiicljÉ|te^4||i|J4.the  whole 
theory  of  igneous  ag(i||bies  —  which  is  l^^^j^^NKnp^  *^^^ 
foundation  of  theôreùic  geologp  —  mutt  fg^gfff^fUSefî  on 
basis  of  a  êolid  ear&i  "  ;  a  conclusîop  which  forms  the  starting- 
poipt  of  bis  essay.  It  is  hère  to  be  noted,  that  the  late  Wil- 
liam Hopkins,  to  wtom  we  owe  one  of  our.great  arguments  in 
favor  of  a  solid  globe,  did  not  take  this  ground,  but  sought  to 
the  phenoména  of  igneous  action  by  the  hypothesis  of 
ons  of  matter  still  remaining  unsolidified  at  no  great 
bei|||»  "the 'solitd  nudeus  and  the  superficial  crust  ' 

issentingûom  this  view,  though  accepting  the  gênerai  conclu- 


-A.- 


^à.'Js 


Ss^^-iiwîCi.  t-  <,  -y  ^Ji 


?*'SJ*«!«Ji*?!*rti*'»!StWK 


-•■# 


,.     ^I-l        ON  SOMB  POINTS  IN  DYNAMICAL  OEOLOOY.  ?! 

%mf^  Hopkiiw  and  otheM  a«  to  a  solid  globe,  I  hâve  Wu 
^eavonng,  «nce  1838,  to  reoonstruct;  m  the  lai^e  of  ^ 

•r^     Tl    ,  f"^'  ^^  tins  i,uae,soi^^l  am  a^f  l 

hâve  labored  to  expand,  complète,  and  give   geological  and 

Chemical  conaistency  to  the  suggestion  long  nZ  p^fo^ 

both  by  Kefer«tem  and  by  Sy-  John  Herschel,  that  the  deepf; 

ir  nf'l   ^^^"'^rf^t^d   «trata  between  the  superficùi 

^nist  of  the  earth  and  the  solid  nncleus  constituée  a  regiW^*  ^ 

plast^inaten^  adéquate  to  explain  ail  the  phenomena  hitherto 

.  .  sulting  from  the  contraction  t>f  the  (solid)  nucleus  would  affect 
the  outer  crust  through  the  médium  of  the  more  or  less  pS L 

A  softening  by.  heat  of  previously  solid  porous  sedimen^ 

T^.l^  """   :  T  "^"^^^^  (^  ^co^iance  with  the  vie^ 
of  Bàbbage  as  to  thense  of  the  isogeothennal  horizons  f«,m 
he  d^ition  of  new^trata)  to  dépend  upon  the  accumula 
tion  of  large  thicknesses  of  sédiment,  the  results  of  whicH  heat  " 
ftnd  softening  were  declared  by  me  to  offer  a  "  readj,  erplana^ 
tion  o/ali  t/^  phenomena  o/volcanaes  and  igneous  rJi^  This 
relation  of  volcanic  phenomena  to  great  acccumulitira,  and  of 
thoee  of  récent  times  to  more  modem  sedimentary  deposits 
which  was  also  maintained  by  me,  was  suBsequently  inTwted 
upon  a^xl  enforced  by  Professer  James  Hall  in  the  introduction 
to  the  third  volume  of  the  Paleoatology  of  New  York.    A  sum-  * 
Dung  up  of  thèse  views  as  put  forth  by  me  in  March,  1858  and 
in  November,  1869,  wiU  be  found  in  the  American  Journd  of 

virf"T  Tk- ®f '•  ^^  ^^  ^•'  "-^^  ^-  <^thepi.seut 
volume.)  In  th»  last  it  was  diown,  in  opposition  to  the  no-  - 
tion  of  Babbage  (who  had  speculated  upon  the  expanmn  and 
conséquent  ekvatim  oî  the  d:eeply  buried  strata  by  beat),  that 
one  of  the  effects  of  heat  and  water  upon  the  buried  sédiment.  " 
would  be  canden^im,  from  the  diminution  of  porosity  and 
atill  more  from  the  convemon  of  the  earthy  materials  into 

CrVStalIinfl  flnon.na  ^f  k;~1 .n .  ^-  ..         .,  ""^^ 


«-„^  11-  T .-.-.v/"  «*   uio  t»n,ny  matenals   into 

Jïyfltalhne  speciea  of  highor  opwtilo.-gfHvityrthaa^canateg^^- 


;-/fî'ïi 


'M 


72 


ON  SOME  POINTS  IN  DYNAMICAL  GEOLOGY.         [VU. 


traction  of  the  mass.  A  further  and  very  important  resuit  of 
this  accumulation  there  pointed  out  was  by  the  softening  of  the 
underlying  floor,  or  ^A*  "  bottom  strata  to  establish  Unes  ofweaJc- 
ness  or  of  leaM  résistance  in  the  eartKs  crust,  and  thiis  détermine 
the  contraction  which  resuUs  front  the  cooling  of  the  globe  to  ex- 
hibit  itsélf  in  those  régions,  and  along  those  Unes  where  tlie  océan* s 
bed  is  subsiding  beneath  tRè  accurmUated  sédiments."  Hence, 
I  added,  "We  conceive  the  subsidence  invoked  by  Mr.  HaU,^,. 
though  not  the  sole  nor  even  the  principal  cause  of  thé  eorruga- 
tions  of  the  earth's  sttata,  is  the  one  which  détermines  their 
position  and  direction  by  making  the  efifects  produced  by  the 
contraction,  not  only  of  sédiments  but  of  the  earth's  nucleus 
itself,  to  be  exerted  along  the  Unes  of  greatest  accumulation." 
{Ante,  page  57.)  As  further  results  of  this  process  of  accumu- 
lation, I  also  asserted  "  the  metamorphism  of  sédiments  in  situ, 
their  displacement  in  a  pasty  condition  from  igneo-aqueous  fu- 
sion as  plutonic  rocks,  and  their  éjection  as  lavas,  with  attend- 
ant gases  and  vapors."     {Ante,  page  16.) 

With  thèse  conclusions,  enunciated  in  1858-1861,  we  may 
compare  those  arrived  at  by  Professor  LeConte  in  his  récent 
essay,  where  he  recognizes  as  conséquences  of  the  heating  of 
great  thicknesses  of  sédiments  accumulated  along  the  shores  of  a 
continent,  a  process  of  condensation  in  the.  lower  strata,  result- 
ing  in  "  contraction  and  subsidence  paripassu  with  the  deposit," 
followed  by  "  aqueo-igneous  softening  or  even  melting,  not 
only  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  sédiments  themselves,  but  of 
the  widerlying  strata  upon  which  they  were  deposited;  the  sub- 
sidence probably  continues  during  this  process.  Finally,  this 
softening  détermines  a  Une  of  ^ielding  to  horizontal  pressure,  and 
a  conséquent  upswelling  of  the  Une  into  a  chain.  Thusl  are 
accounted  for,  first,  the  subsidence,  then  the  subséquent  upheaval, 
and  also  the  mttamorphism  of  the  lower  strata."  Beneath  every 
great  Une  of  sédiments  there  wiU  moreover  be  found,  according 
to  him,  a  réservoir  of  sedimentary,  material  in  a  state  of  more  or 
less  complète  fusion,  in  wMch  volcanic  phenomena  hâve  their 
seat.  The  reader  cannot  fail  to  see  that  thèse  views  are  identi- 
cal  with  those  which  I  hâve  so  long  advocated. 


i>S^.^   -i^  \it^«> -  A>Z aù.!iislj>' % tW.il<&uU^<i«ai^tA...JHt^àu.giyatoa^^ W>S^.^^ 


n 


VIL] 


OxV  SOME  POINTS  IN  DYNAMICAL  GÉOLOGY. 


73 


/ 


our  other  critics.  Thua  they  hâve  been  IsZdi^'Tj" 
of  mounteina  with  the  origin  of  mountains  h&lnt  "  1  i  T 
Conte  says.  "  HaU  anH  TTnr,f  i        '"'"'"*8  ^^it  out    j  while  Le- 

j'«,     xiau  and  Uunt  leave  the  sédiments  iust  aft^r  fi, 
whole  préparation  has  been  made.  but  befom  T>.«      f  f     ^ 
tain-formation  has  taken  dW  "     V  .         ^''"^  '"°^- 

aware,  neither  Zl  nor  ye^Le^r  '"  "''  " '"  "  ^  ^°^ 
views  (anfe,  page  49)TJ!L^  5  ^  ""^  exposition  of  his 
.  latter  part  ofTe  proct^  P^oposed  any  theory  to  explain  this 

tain-fo^tion."    HaU'a  contribution  tTl  pX  II "" 

rsh±eraS£r:^i.^  T^^^ 

.ulations  Of  «edimen^Tm^r^^^rt^hrltr^^^^^^^ 

are  due  to  loL  u^lr  w  l^"'V'^  ^°"°^^  «^«^ations 

bac.  to  -e  theolX^tl^^t:^^^^^^^^^ 

tive  to  continental  élévations"     Th.^         y  S^oiogmta  pila- 


'^n.  t 


74  ON  SOME  POINTS  IN  DYNAMICAL  GEOLOGY.        [VII. 

tion  of  the  nudeus  is  brought,  in  the  manner  which  I  long 
since  explained,"  to  act  upon  Ihe  great  accumulations  o£  sédi- 
ment, 80  that  they  are  "crushed  together  horizontally  and 
swelled  up  vertically,"  thus  producing  not  only  plications 
and  slaty  cleavage,  but  an  amount  of  vertical  extension  "fuUy 
adéquate  to  cuxount  for  the  uphecmil  of  the  greatest  mountain- 
c/iains"  ;  the  ridges,  peaks,  gorges,  and  valleys  of  mountain- 
regions  being,  however,  the  results  of  subséquent  érosion.  This 
theory  of  the  plications  of  strata,  and  their  relations  both  to, 
great  accumulations  and  to  a  contracting  nucleus,  is  fuUy  s^ 
forth  in  my  paper  of  1861,  already  quoted  ;  where  I  hâve  alsd 
insisted  upon  the  reWilts  of  "the  latéral  pressure  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  strata  in  an  elongated  basin  (of  subsidence)  by 
the  contraction  of  the  globe." 

But  while  admitting  that  the  process  hère  "described  must 
cause  élévations  of  the  compressed  strata,  it  must  be  said  that 
it  fiails  to  solve  the  problem  of  the  uplifting  of  mountain- 
regions,  the  strata  of  which  hâve,  in  mahy  cases,  undergone 
neither  folding  nor  latéral  compression,  but  are  nearly  or  quite 
horizontal  Foldings,  contortions,  and  slaty  cleavage,  though 
met  with  in  many  mountain-regions,  are,  in  fact,  accidents 
which  are  to  be  left  out  of  view  in  considering  the  origin  of 
mountains.  The  student  of  physical  geography  may  learn 
from  the  great  elevated  plateaus  of  the  globe  the  truth  of  De 
Montlosier's  statement,  that  the  great  mountaiu-chains  of 
Europe  are  but  the  remains  of  continental  élévations  which 
hâve  been  eut  away  by  denudation,  and  that  the  foldings  and 
inversions  to  be  met  with  in  the  structure  of  mountains  are  to 
be  looked  upon  only  as  local  and  accidentai.  (Ante,  page  52.) 
In  a  similar  spirit  Jukes  remarks  that  we  learn  "  how  complete- 
ly  the  présent  surface  of  the  earth  is  a  sculptured  surface  carved 
out  by  denudation,  and  how  little,  as  a  rule,  it  is  effected  by 
the  dislocations,  upheavals  and  convolutions  of  the  rocks  be- 
neath  it."  (Manual  of  Geology,  3d  éd.,  449.)  In  the  casé  of' 
the  uplifked  palœozoic  basin  of  eastem  North  America,  as  Hall 
has  well  shown,  the  process  of  élévation  was  the  same  for 
&6  tMeker  i^dr  eeia^i^ited  -aedimftnta^^  4hà  -flastem  poitioi 


^  •  ^f^^^ijfiî:  th'i  J-.C 


■^'"f^  '•  ^' 


î  ir^« 


vn.] 


ON  soME  Povm  m  dynamical  geology. 


75 


and  for  the  thinner  and  undifit„rl.n^    *   .      . 

the  npper  Mississippi     C  h  iT        T^  '^  *^«  ^^«^  «^ 

sandstone  at  the  base  «1??  ]^?'  ^™^  *^«  l'otedam 
show  us  the  p.du^S,t  2L'[  r  "^^^^^  ^-*-' 
cated  by  the  accidente  wWch^X.^'^^tT"'  '"""P^" 
m  régions  where  contortion  of  twU  T  ^  """^  '^^"^^ 
has  also  noted  in  this  côl^tio  '  th^  "^  «"Pervened.  HaU 
of  the  Catskill  MounteS^  ""^'^^  ^^''^^^^^  «t^t* 

lachts-htr:  i;sr.r  br/^  °^-  -  ^^«  -pp^- 

crystalline  strata  which  .^  f .  .    1      assumptiou  that  the 

cient  continent  of  602^7^1,  ^î-w     *^'*°  P*'^^  «^  ««  ««- 
der  of  the  pa^z2  1  ^"^  ^^""^^'^  *^«  «««teni  bor- 

tains  on  thi^^rTrf"""'''"^^  ''  *^«  ^^^y  ^oun- 

ent  wriL  until  mo  Xn'h"  enT  """.^'°^'  '^  *'^«  P- 
crystalline  «>ck8  of  ^;r^i!r  T^^  *"  '^°^  *^«*  the 
sentetives  both  to  ttso^f ^  / '"?  ^^^  "'^''^«Sical  ^P«^- 
pre-pal^ozoic  âge  and  in  "tf  ^""^  ^^'  '''''^'^^^'  ^^  oî 
enoe%U.83SoAdd"s^tftT?  (Amer.  Jour.  Sci- 
Indianapolis,  1871    Pane^  XTTT     .  î    '^'"'""  Association, 

aj-dybefo;  J;,t7bXle^nltrE;^     "'"  ^^^^' 

when.afte/describingfCiS"''"'/'™'  'ï^'  '"  '««9. 
•«ii»enta  ..„^  .vidlX  dS  W^  '.""'  **•  «"~ 


T-^  «a  lefore  the  Amencan  Géographe  Society, 


.ifoiû.iViA'  «'uil;'-»  '!'■;. 


^^lâ^ii^^^  &l£^;JiMt'>4>^.  '  ..l» 


76 


ON  SOME  POINTS  m  DYNAMCAL  GEOLOGY.        [VIL 


New  York,  November  12, 1872,  I  adduced  a  further  argument 
in  favor  of  such  a  pre-palseozoic  continent  to  the  eastward, 
from  the  climatic  conditions  of  great  drynesa  which  gave  rise 
in  the  palœozoic  région  of  North  America  to  deposits  of  sait, 
gypsum,  and  dolomite  over  considérable  areaa  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  Michigan  and  Ohio,  and  from  the  time  of  the  Cal- 
ciferous  formation  to  the  Lower  Carhoniferous.  (Engineering 
and  Mining  Journal,  January  14  and  23,  1873.) 

In  concluding  lus  essay,  Professor  LeConte  déclares  that  an 
important  problem  in  geological  dynamics  remains,  in  his  opin- 
ion, unsolved,  namely,;the  cause  of  those  "great  and  wide-spread 
oscillations  which  hâve  marked  the  great  divisions  oîtinu,  and 
hâve  left  their  impress  in  the  gênerai  unconformability  of  the 
strata  "  ;  the  last  being  that  of  thepost-pliocene  period.     Now, 
it  is  precisely  the  upward  movements  of  this  kind  which  con- 
stitute  the  continental  élévations  of  De  Montlosier,  Hall,  and 
myself,  giving  rise  to  plateaus,  and  by  the  partial  érosion  and 
denudation  of  thèse  to  mountains.     The  cause  of  thèse  conti- 
nental élévations  was  not  discussed  by  Hall,  and  is  by  LeConte 
declared  to  be  unexplained  ;  while  such  ia  the  case,  "  the  ac- 
tual  mountain-formation,"  to  use  his  words,  is  still  unaccounted 
for.     That  thèse  gentle  and  widespread  movements  of  oscilla- 
tion are,  however,  in  some  way  not  yet  clearly  explained,  con-  ' 
Hected  with  the  contracting  of  the  nucleus  and  the  conséquent 
conforming  thereto  of  the  envelope,  we  can  scarcely  doubt  ;  or 
that  the  latter,  from  its  nature  and  origin,  must  présent  great 
différences  in  constitution  and  in  flexibility  in  its  varions  parts. 
From  this  it  might  be  expected  that  the  movement^  imparted 
to  the  envelope  alike  by  the  process  of  secular  cooling  and  con- 
traction of  the  nucleus,  and  by  the  disturbance  of  the  equilib- 
rium  of  pressure  conséquent  on  the  processes  of  érosion  and 
sédimentation,  would  give  rise  to  seemingly  irregular  oscilla- 
tions, resulting  in  the  dépression  or  the  élévation  of  conside^ 
able  areas,  constituting  continental  movements. 

The  grave  question  herè  anses  as  to  whether  the  beat  which 
plnys  such  an  important  part  in  the  phenomena  under  con- 
^sideration  is  a  caurê^ôf^an  êlfect  of  theTtetivities  beneath  th»= 


î*'- 


^SlWJri^fî'V^'^KRWWf  Wl-!W  IWS'K 


i"" 


■3 


m]         ON  SOME  POINTS  IN  Dl-NAMICAL  GEOLOGY.  77 

^h'8  surface.^  Starting  from  the  notion  of  an  igneous  centre 
Babbage  and  He^chel  adopted  the  fixst  view,  in  wS  îw 
foUowed  them,  maintainine  that  th^  hno*  f-J.  ® 

nucleus  is  the  efficient  c^l  of  lî,  ^*  ^'^  '^^«"'«'^ 

festations.  AccoZlT^,irzr\r'r'''^'''- 

hypothesis  of  an  incandes^n    n,t  '  °'^''  *'°^'  *^« 

internai  heat  Wt«  fromThat  he  Ïll7  T ""'''^'  ^°'  *^« 
the  d.pl,  buHed  sediTent;^  J;^ I  tT^S  S 
hese  two  as  proposed  by  LeConte,  who  suggeslthat  h^ 
rom  a  central  source  invading  the.buried  sediSnte  ^ay  the" 
excite  chemzca    action,  which  will,  in  its  tum,  evoZ  hea^ 
and  tijns  greatlj  augment  their  tempemture.     It  irholet  ' 

.  set  up  m  the  buned  sédiments  for  their  convemon  into  iS 

Wiman.Th.nson'3^.,3  att^oS^Lti'fheSrv'ed 
mean  rate  of  increase  in  descending  in  the  eartVs  c^st  ^t 
continue  with  but  little  variation  L  100  non  f!  t  T,^] 
g^^uaUy  diminish  at  greater  de^tht  fr^l^TL^^^^^^^^  ^f  ' 
flucting  Power.  Estiniating  with  hi;n  the  ratlofTcreL  at" 
one  degree  of  Fahrenheit  for  fifty-one  feet,  it  woddTq^i^e 

duce  the  Chemical  actions  required.     But  it  is  probable  that 

remained  the  hypothesis  that  thermal  effect«  mjght  resuit  from 
Iw  htTJ  rrC  '^"^  ^'''^  *^«  ™°-  --^«--1  f7r^ 

^^ted^by  George  L.Vo8e,who8ejeTiewof  Orographie  Geok 


^fi^vitaï  Srif '.i.,,^ 


/ 


Wr 


78 


ON 


SOME  POINTS  m^DYNAMICAL  GEOLOGY.       [VIL 

ject,  waa  fublished  in  1866.     In  it,  while  recognizing  with 
Sorby  the' conversion  of  mechanical  force  into  chemical  action, 
he  insista  ihat  "tke  enormous  pressure  generated  in  the  fold- 
ing  ofc  masses  of  rocks  the  depth  of  which  is  ©easured,  by 
miles"  is  an  agent  potent  to  produce  changes  both  mechanical 
and  chemicaL     The  causes  of  the  conversion  of  «ediments  into 
plutonic  rocjcs  like  granité,  he  conçoives  to  be  "meclutnical 
compression,  tviih  the  heat  and  chemiml  action  wliich  proceed 
therefrom,"  and  adds  in  a  note,  alluding  to  the  view  which 
explains"  their  conversion  by  the  action  of  beat  from  beneath, 
»  we  should  prefer  to'  get  the  beat  needed  by  the  compression 
which  accompanies  the  disturbance  of  the  strata  where  meta- 
morphikm  occurs."'  (Orographie  Oeology,  pp.  129, 130.)*  This 
suggestion  of  Vose  is  sustained  by  the  late  researches  of  Robert 
Mallet,  who  concludes  that,  ^  thlSeli^  crust  sinks  together 
to  foUow  down  the  shrinkinj  nucleus,  the  twri;  expended  m 
mutual  crushing  and  dislocation  of  its  parts  is  trans/omud  into 
heat,  by  which,  at  the  places  where  the  crushing  sufficiently 
takes  place,  the  material  of  the  rock  so  crushed  and  that  adja- 
cent  to  it  are  heated  e^en  to  fusion.    The  access  of  water  at 
Buch  points  détermines  volcanio-eruption."   (American  Journal 
of  Science,  III.  iv,  411.)    To  this  it  may  be  added,  that, 
inasmuch  as  the  crushing  process  takes  place  in  strata  which, 
from  their  depth,  are  akeady  at  an  elevated  température,  the 
heat  developed  by  the  mechanical  process  cOmes  in  to,  supplé- 
ment that  derived  by  conduction  from  the  ignéous  centre. 

•  It  was  n<é  until  after  the  publication  of  this  paper  that  I  b«can»e  aware 
that  Professpr  Henry  Wurtz  had  prê||o\i8ly  enunciated  the  view  suggested  by 
Vose  and  adopted  and  appUed  by  Mallet.  In  a  paper  read  before  the  Amer- 
ican A8«)ciation  for  the  Advanoement  of  Science,  at  Bu£Ealo,  in  August,  1866, 
and  published  in  the  American  Jonmal  of  Mining  for  January  25, 1868,  under 
the  title  of  Gold-Genetic  Metamorphism,  etc.,  Professor  Wurtz  concludes  that 
"  the  tremendous  dynamlc  agendes  whose  effects  of  upheaval,  subsidence,  dis- 
niption  and  displacement  we  flnd  ao  widely  manifest,  whUe  doubtleas  them- 
selves  engendered  of  the  pent-tç»  heatieneigy  of  the  interior,  must  hâve  given 
birth  to  or  been  in  part  transmuted  into  heat-motion,"  and  proceeds  to  say  that 
in  the  heat  which  must  be  evolved  in  thèse  movements  we  may  find  an  explans- 
^  tion  of  metamoiphic  changea,  aad  oC  "thannal  spring»  and  many  like  phe- 


r^l 


nomena. 


■'-^. 


A  ^WjoriAjèhi 


2*^À"*^*i^'«  wS* 


•l'I' 


\   .    :■ 

m]        OH  SOME  POIHTS  IN  DTNAMICAl  GEOLOOV.  ^9 

Moieorer,  ttese  strala  olhady  Mude,  not  only  w.ler   but 
to  comix,u„d,  o(  chlortoa,  aulphur,  <„,d  «bon  L«  fo' 
the  geneKtionof  Ihe  vario«B  'gase,  ,Thich  are  the  feZ„^  !^ 
comp.mme.ta„fvolcam„  option..    With  the  comribuMo^ 

Ke^;^  Ht^c?/"  h''""^:Î  "'"^"  ^«-'  °^™-^V 


/v 


-^ 

- 

y 

^ 

•» 

^ 

.* 

* 

• 

-. 

*^  ^^^,  ■     * 

« 

•      • 

j. 

Hm»      '^IpiMÉliitlk'l^f-'  f;Jift^^ 

»!è^->iiC*-.tj-;-'  u'^.-' 

.j5i>-    • 

(    ^  )   4    ^/~       fc         ^  ' 

• 

â^ 

«^Tfï,     \ 


VIIL 

ON  LIMESTONES,  DOLOMITES  AND 
GYPSUMS. 

(1858-1866.) 

The  resnlts  of  the  anthor"»  researches  on  tbe  chemlstry  of  the  salts  of  lime  and 
magnesia,  undertaken  with  référence  to  the  theory  of  mineral-waters  and  the  origin  of 
calcareous  and  magnesian  roflka,  were  flrst  announced  In  the  American  Journal  of  Sci- 
ence for  July,  1858,  and  subsequently  more  at  length  in  an  easay  in  that  Journal  for 
September  and  November,  1889.  This  paper,  whlch  extended  over  thirty-aix  pages, 
waa  divided  into  flve  parts,  of  whlch  the  flmt  treats  of  the  action  of  solution»  of  bicar- 
bonate of  soda  on  the  soluble  salts  of  lime  and  magnesia  ;  the  second  on  the  reactions 
between  solutions  of  bicarbonate  of  lime  and  the  sulphates  of  soda  and  magnesia  ; 
4he  thiid  describes  the  production  of  the  double  carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia 
'  (dolomite)  ;  the  fourth  discusses  various  facts  W  the  history  of  gypsums,  dolomites, 
niagnesites,  and  limestones  ;  and  the  flfth  treats  of  the  mode  of  formation  of  thèse 
"rocl^s.  The  continuation  of  the  sul^ject  to  the  same  Journal  for  July,  1866,  occupies 
nlneteen  pages,  and  includes  researches  on  the  hydrated  double  carbonates  of  lime 
and  magnesia,  on  supersaturated  solutions  of  thèse  two  carbonates,  and  on  the  alleged 
décomposition  of  gypsum  by  dolomite,  beaides  fUrther  expérimenta  on  the  artiflcial 
production  of  dolomite. 

AUusions  to  some  of  the  résulta  obtalned  are  made  in  paper  IV.,  and  many  more 
of  the  résulta  are  erabodied  to  the  one  on  Natural  Water8(IX.),  while  in  XIII.  will  be 
found  a  brief  summary  of  the  resuite  so  far  as  the  origin  of  dolomites  and  magnesian 
limestones  is  concemed.  I  hâve  thought  it  weU  to  reproduce  in  the  présent  collection 
some  few  selecUona  from  the  flfth  part  of  the  easay  of  1859,  and  to  préface  them  by  a 
translation  of  parte  of  a  letter  written  to  Elie  de  Beaumont  and  printed  in  the  Comptes 
Rendus  of  the  French  Academy  of  Science  fôr  June  9,  1862,  and  subsequenUy  ta  the 
Canadian  Naturalist. 

FROM  THE  COMPTES  RENDUS  OF  THE  FRENCH  ACADEMY 
OF  SCIENCES,  JUNE  9,  1862. 

On  the  28th  of  October,  1844,  a  memoir  was  deposited  with 
the  Academy  by  the  illustrious  Cordier.  Being  in  a  sealed 
packet,  its  contents  remained  unknown  until  after  his  death, 
■when,  at  the  request  of  his  widow,  the  seal  was  broken,  and 
the  paper,  which  bears  the  date  of  October  22,  1844,  waa  first 
made  public  in  the  Comptes  Eendua  of  the  Academy  for  Febru- 


tiîK'» 


vin.] 


CHEMISI^Y  OF  LIMESTONES  AND  DOLOMITES. 


81 


\      long  to  the  PrS^  ^n^^'^''^  "^^^^  ^«  -*  be- 
and  doWe.     27,6^^^:7  L'  'r^*""  '''^-*-« 

pyroxenic  roehs  "  wCh  havtbere-cZ^  r^h  ^'"r  ^^ 

deposits  of  pure  limestone      Mr  Cc2       ^  '  '^""''*^  «^ 

that  thèse  last  hav^reen  fnJ^^^    i"'         '"'"^'*'  *^«  ^^^ 

cea  and  zoo2te8  whicï  Tt      7\  '^  '^'  ^^^^  «^  *««**- 

proportion  oril„ff'  .  ""^  *°  ^^'  ^«"^  ^^^  «  «°^ 
L  «  7  xu  ^'™^*one-formations.  Going  back  still  f„rf  jT 
he  finds  the  source  alike  nf  fK«        i,      .      „  further, 

ceS  chen.  S  ^ons     V  ^.«^  '^«-«o-  rocks,  in 

mite,^  form  th^sTt^n  v    Tu^^  ^  admixture  of  dolo- 

we  .ustad^rr^iXT^n^^^^^^     *^- 

clXttotci^t'  -.pose  trcL':;.4^:Mr: 

the  chlôrides  of  XmlS  ''''°^*^  °'  «°^  "P°^ 

bonate  of  soda  bÏgXri'd  TTTJ^  ^"■"^*"'  *^«  -^- 
«pars,  irom  alkaline  S  td  Î  ^^T^^P^^^^^»  «^  feW. 
This  alkaline  sait,  reaclS^^^on  the  «^J/^^^^^  --^«-• 
giveriseto  chloride  of  sodium  anH  \.^  °^  sea-water,  would 
certain  conditions,  to  «^^0^^  ""^^  °''""^' ^°^' -^- 
this  reaction  must  resuira^^T^'''*''  Précipitâtes.     From 

of  the  océan,  whilh^lep^d^t  T*^"  "  *'^  «°^P««^*-- 
the  marine  fauna  of  suSve  1^         Progressive  changes  in 

for  the  fet  time,Tl862    an;    ^w "u^  "  "°"  P"^^^^^^' 

,ordert^caUth;;ttenl,;fTbeltd       bave  thus  noticed  in 

Papers,  in  which  I  hâve  mltl  J^'"^^  *"  "^^°^^  P^b^i^hed 

fouryears.     fSee  forTl.«  ^      f  «°"I«  views  for  the  last 

Paper  in  the^plt  vowT/lrr;  ''  '''^''  *^«  «-' 
iu  the  letter  of^Hchr.lr^L^^ff  "'^^  "^  "bich  was  given 


-5!il_,*%-W...'.  > 


^^liiia-ii^  ^.jijijs»  «< 


itfct     K  ^        1 


^.•- 


zxm 


'^'An 


'    « 


82  CHEMISTRY  OF  UMESTONES  AND  DOLOMITES.      [VIII. 

In  the  American  Jourpal  of  Science  for  \859  wiU  bo  found 
the  résulta  of  a  serieB  ot  investigations  of  the  reactions  of 
solutions  of  bicarbonate  of^soda  with  sea»water,  and  upon  thè 
conditions  required  for  the  précipitation  of  cajfbonate  o^  mag- 
nesia  and  the  formation  of  dolomite.     I  hâve  there  %o  shown 
the  mutual  décomposition,  at  ordinary  températures»  oMutions 
^of  bicarbonate^  of  lime  and  sulphate  of  magnesia,  ^tmg  m 
the  formation  of  gypsum  and  of  a  soluble  bicarbô^t^%f  lùag- 
nesia,  which  becomes  the  source  of  dolomite  or  of^Maagnesite. 
A  notice  of  the  first  part  of  thèse  researches  wiU  be  foîind  in 
the  Comptes  Kendus  for  iSlay  23,  1859,     In  the  continuation 
of  them,  as  cited  ^bove,  it  is  shown  that  the  association  of  mag- 
nesian  and  pure  limestonea  establishes  the  fact  that  thèse  rocks 
hâve  both  been  deposited  as  sédiment  ftnd  that  the  hypothesis 
which  explains"the  origin  of  dolomitë^^y  a  subséquent  altéra-, 
tion  of  pure  limestones  is  inadmissibre.  „  It  is  also  shown  that 
great  portions  of   limestone,  eyen  in  fossiliferous  formations, 
hâve  the  characters  of  précipitâtes  resulting  from  chemical  re- 
actions, and  hâve  never  formed  part  of  organiaed  beings  j,  which 
last,  moreover,  owe  their  carbonate  of  lime  to  similar  reactions. 
My  views  upon  the  composition  of  the  primitive  ôcean  were 
further  supportai  by  the  analyses  of  numerous  salipe  waters 
from  lower  palseozoic  limestones.     In  thèse  waters,  the  bases  of 
which  are  almost  whoUy  in  the  condition  of  chlorides,  about 
one  half  of  the  chlorine  is  combined  with  sodium,  and  the 
other  half  is  nearly  equally  divided  between  calcium  and  mag- 
nésium. 

The  Academy  will  percelve,  from  the  short  analysis  above 
given,  the  extent  and  the  importance  of  my  généralisations,  with 
which  the  ideas  of  Mr.  Cordier  are,  for  the  most  part,  m  per- 
fect  accordance.  It  will  further  be  observed,  that  the  publica- 
tion of  Mr.  Leymerie,  in  which  simUai:  views  are,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  indicated  (see  the  Comptes  Rendus  of  March  10, 
1862),  dates  only  from  1861,  while  my  own  papers  appeared 

in  1858  and  1859. 

My  researcheâ  upon  the  origin  of  dolomites  ^nd  limestones 
^-fully  juatify  the  prévisions  of  Mr.  Cordier.    Hg.A^wever^\°, 


:M: 


4  i 


■r-i; -/iwi ■ 


VIII.] 


CHEMISTKY  OF  DOLOMITES  AND  0YPSUM8. 


83 


ary  formations,  aÏ  connue"  h""  ^;"'"^'''*^  ^  '''««  ««^imea^ 
gênerai  view.  TheVCTl?  ^  ^  ""  '"^^P"'^'^  '«  ^he 
cated  by  Mr.  Corder  ^17''  ^^'^^^«^^^  «^  «oda  ihdi- 

.      -U     i;be  aXeor;ocrd^rivTof  ^^ 

of  the  alkali  which  th^t  once  conf^I^       \  "^^  Proportion 
spars,  are  the  equix^alents  of  thTi       ^^  "*  *^'  ^'^^  «^  ^«W- 

Wd  at  the  expe^of  the  i'd'T?  ^'"''^  ^-«  ^«n 
tive  océan.  "^""'^^  «'^  «^Icium  of  the  primi- 

■•  •  ■*.   ' 

SCIENCE    FOR   NOVeSe    Jf  V"™"*"  ■"«""'«  OP 
MAONESUN  BOCK!         ^  FOKMinoN  OP  GYPauMS  AND 

«iriw  i„  the  -I&  „nr;;r Jet''/'™  '«-  <•- 

«o  Ils  eonsUeration  I  wish  to  ™lfT    .  P™e«ling 

brin^Zls  o?  tt  P        '''*'"  °^  ^>  ^*«"  -"d  many  of  the 

contain  little  sulphate  but^     T  ^""^  ''°''  °*^^'*  ^'  ^^^^ 
and  if  they  a^'he  ^Mues  «f        '^  '^  ^^^«"^^  «^  -!-««>.  ' 
by  additioi  o7thl  St  ILt  r""'*"''  ^'''  ^^°  "'«^^fi^^ 
^agneaia  into  chtidt tf^       """''''T^^  '^'  «^P^^*«  «^ 


1. 


^ 


,  ^     rfuv*  %  f^i^*  : 


84 


CHEillSTKY  OF  DOLOMITES  AND  GYPS.UMS.'       [VIII. 

But  while  8ome  of  thèse  saline  lokes  may  be  -supposed  to, 
.    be  basins  of  sea^water,  modified  by  evaporation  either  alone 
'     or  conioined  with  the  influx  of  foreign  saline  mfttters,  others 
were  evidently  once  fresh-ivàtet  lakes  in  which,  the  loss  of 
water  by  evaporation  being'  equal  to  the  supply,  bave  grad- 
ually  accumulated  the  soluble  salts  of  aU  the  rivers  and  spnngs 
flowing  into  the  lake.     We  may  arrive  at  some  notionof  the 
diverse  natiires  of  the  différent  saline  lakes  which  wo^d  be 
formed  in  this  way  if  we  suppose  the  waters  of  différent 
tV-         European  rivers  to  be  subjected   to  evaporation  under  con- 
^     .  ditions  Uke  l^hose  of  the  sait  lakes  of  western  Asia.     In  the^ 
waters  of  the  Elbe  and  Th^es  chlorides  greatly  predonunate   v 
(in  the  latter  l^ith  gypsum),  with  smaU  amounts  of  mgnesian 
salts,  and  the  evaporation  of  thèse  waters  would  give  nse  to 
lakes  containipig  a  large  proportion  of  common  sait     In  the 
Seine,  on  theicontrary,  sulpliate  of  lime  predonunates,  whilo 
the  waters  of  ^he  Rhine,  the  Danube,  the  Arr,  and  the  Axve 
contain  bnt  sipall  amounts  of  chlorides  and  large  proportions, 
of  sulphates  of  lime  and  magnesia.  .       ,  ^  , 

In  other  rivers  wefindalkaline  salts.    The  Loira  at  Orfean^ 
according  to  D^ville,  contains  in  100,000  parts,  13.46  ofsohd 
matters,  of  whjch  35.0  p.  c.  is  carbonate  of  lime  an§  30.0  p.  c. 
silica  •  while  tVo  thirds  of  the  more  soluble  salts  consist  o* 
carbomte  of  soda>  Iii  the  waters  of  the  Garonne,  with  as 
large  a  proportion  of  silica  and  more  carbonate  of  Urne,  the 
carbonate  of  soda  equ^  one  fourth  of  the  soluble  salts  ;  whUe 
100,000  pajts  of  the  water  of  the  Ottawa,  according  to  my 
analysis,  contain  6.11  parts  of  solid  matters,  consisting  of  car- 
bonate of  lime  2.48,  carbonate  of  magnesia  0.69,  silica  2.06, 
sulphates  and  chlorides  of  potassium  and  sodium  0.47,  and 
carbonate  of  soda  0.41".     Silica,  although  more  abondant  m 
alkaline  river-watèrs.  ia  not  wanting  in  waters   contammg 
neutral  earthy  salts  like  the  ^eine  and  the  Ehone,  of  the  solid 
matters  of  Which,  according  to  Deville,  it  forms  respectively 
10.0  and  13.0  p.  c.     (Annales  de  Chimie  et  'de  Physique  (3), 
XXIII.  32.)    The  waters  which  rise  fiom  the  lower  palœozoic 


AA.111..   O^'f       -^"P  n»TOxn   „^^^ —  X 

shales  of  the  St.  tâwre^ice  valtey-are,  m ^  hâve  ahown,-»- 


'.  J«';i 


viir.j 


CHBMISTRY  OF  DOLOMITES  AND  GYPSUMa 


85 


markable  for  the  prédominance  of  alkaline  Balts  wh.VI, 
times  amount  to  one  thouBandth  ortTtT   ^   '        ^  ''''"®- 
solid  mattere  présent     C^'  ?         ""^  '^  °°«  ^^  the 

,      the  rive^wa^.'^^„e^lTedT':h'"  '^*"^"''^^'   ^"^"^ 

■amounts  of  sil  J  and  Tr^^T  IL'nl  ^^^1;'"''  '"^ 

of  a  notable  proportion  of  boL^»  ^  *^'  ^^^"^ 

b^ïe^rSiiir^ror^i^^t^L^^^^^^^ 

abundance  of  alkaUne  carZaî^  in      ?'^"'  ''^'^''^'''  ''^  *^« 

to  the  calculations  of  Gilbert  firnL  -  ^f,  '"^'  "''"'^'°» 
teen  .illiops  of  pounc^  of  .^;ii^ ^LI^^^^^^^  *'^"  ^ 
of  thèse  alkaline  wate«,  whethertf  Xl "r  o^ltZ         î 

oTreT^r^^firn---^^^^^ 

lï.  1U3.)  ^^  '      "^  ^'^S^-    (^^«ho^.  Lehrbuch, 

The  carbonate  of  soda  contained  in  thèse  waf.«.  i,       •. 

nrivedof  .1       ^''"°^^*^«^  «f  argillaceous  sédiments  d^ 
pnved  of  a  large  portion  of  their  alkali,  and  also  hv  fh. 

•tetî  ::^r»»'"«  -""«i-  for  »«  prâipitoZ.„f  Lbo». 
,  f  ■°^°«»  »  tt»  absence  of  cUoride  of  caWum  ft™7)^ 

Ime.    By  the  eraporation  of  «ucE  a  aolutio,^  fte  lat  Jaalt 


---^-;1 


{^fl^^^^^^M.^^^.^Wr'i^.^lMt^YÎH'^  «  ^^-faiâ%>ivU\4k.  ^  ^^^  ijh  1^^  %È^l^fi^^ 


O»   •' 


o 


Sit 


86 


CHEMISTRY  OF  DOLOMITES  AND  GYPSUMS. 


tVIII. 


beijgg  the  less  soluble,  is  firet  deposited  in  the  form  of  gyp* 
e'itfptm,  while  th,e  magnesian  carbonate  is  only  separated  after  fur- 
tl\er  evaporation  ;  when,  provided  the  supply  of  bicarbonate  of 
liîne  still  continues,  the  two  carbonates  may  fall  down  in  a  state 
of  intermixture.  In  this  way  sédiments  wUl  be  formed  con- 
taining  the  éléments  of  dolomite  or  of  magnesite. 

The  solution  of  magnesian  bicarbonate  remaining  after  the 
déposition  of  gypsum  from  the  solution  possesses,  as  we  hâve 
seen,  the  power  of  decomposîng  chloride  of  calcium,  and,  when 
deprived  of  a  portion  of  its  carbonic  acid  by  evaporation,  reacts 
in  a  similar  manner  with  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  lime. 
In  this  way,  an  influx  of  sea-water  into  the  basin  from 
which  gypsum,  and  perhâi>s  a  portion  of  magnesian  carbonate, 
has  aiready  been  deposited,  would  give  rise  to  a  precipitate  qf 
carbonate  of  lime,  like  thé>  tufaceoiis  limestones  whose  <»ccur- 
rence  with  gypsum  and  dolomites  has  been  aiready  noticed. 
~Tij  basins  which,  like  the  salt-lagoons  of  Bessarabia  on  the 
snores  of  the  Black  Sea,  receive  occasional  additions  of  sea- 
water,  and  deposit  every  summer  large  amouuts  of  sait  (Bischof, 
Lehrbuch,  II.  1717),  the  influx  of  waters  coutaining  bicarbonate 
of  lime  would  give  rise  to  the  formation  of  beds  of  gypsum, 
alternating  with  dolomites  or  magnesian  maris  and  rock-salt. 

We  hâve  aiready  referred  to  the  analyses  of  certain  rivers  in 
which  the  sulphates  are  more  abundant  than  the  chlorides. 
Thus,  in  the  Rhine,  neat  Bonn,  according  to  Bischof,  we  hâve 
for  100,000  parts  of  tlie  water,  17.08  of  solid  matters,  of  which 
1.23  are  sulphate  of  lime,  and  1.81  sulphate  of  magnesia,  with 
only  1.45  of  chloride  and  8.37  of  carbonate  of  lime;  iia  the 
Danube,  near  Vienna,  the  prédominance  of  sulphates  is  still 
more  marked.  The  waters  of  the  Arve,  in  the  mouth  of  Feb- 
ruary,  gave  to  Tingry,  for  100,000  parts,  24.5  of  solid  matters, 
of  which  6.5  were  sulphate  of  lime,  6.2  sulphate  of  magnesia, 
and  8.3  carbonate  of  Urne,  with  only  1.5  of  chlorides.  Now, 
as  in  river-waters  there  is  always  présent  an  excess  of  carbonic 
acid,  and  as  bicarbonate  of  lime  and  sulphate  of  magnesia  in 
solution  are  mutually  decomposed,  thèse  waters,  which  are  to  be 
legarded  as  aolutieaa^  ef  aalpbate^  of  limo  iad  bicarben 


ikt^&ÀW^i  .»'j£bî^i^i^sUj4M<^r<-<«. 


*faat-«.A4'%  M 


ïïït'" 


1'>- 


VIII.]        CHEMISTRY  OF  DOLOMITES  AND  GYPSUMS.  87 

magnesia.  would,  by  their  evapomtion,  yield  gypsum  and 
magnesian  carbonate,  which  would  appear  as  portions  of  a 
fresh-water  formation,  like  those  of  Aix  and  Auveigne 

Thé  similar  décomposition  of  soluble  sulphates  by  bicarbon- 
ates of  baryta  and  strontia  wiU  explain  the  formation  of  heavv 
spar  and  celestine,  and  their  irequent  association  with  ^psif- 
erous  rocks.  eji^''" 

As  to  the  native  sulphur  which  is  often  associated  both  with 
epigenic  and  sedimentary  gypsums,  it  bas  doubtless  in  every 
case  been  formed,  as  Breislak  long  since  indicated,  by  the  de- 
xomposition  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen.     It  is  well  known  that 
alkahne  and  earthy  sulphates  are  reduced  to  sulphurets  by  or- 
gamc  matter^,  with  the  aid  of  beat,  or  eyen  at  ordinary  temper-'" 
atures,  m  présence  of  water.     To  the  décomposition  of  thèse 
sulphurets  by  water  and  carbonic  acid  we  are  to  ascribe  not 
only  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  of  solfataras  (which,   by  its 
oxxdation  under  différent  conditions,  giye.  rise  eithe;  to  free 
sulphur  or  to  sulphunc  acid  and  to  gypsum  by  epigenesis),  but 
a^o  the  sulphuretted  hydi^gen  which  appeaxs  in  springs  arld  in 

ition  of  the  gas  is  often  mingled  with  sedimentary  gypsums  * 
Bischof,  Lehrbuch,  IL  139  - 185.)    Bischof  bas  alsoY^g^d 

dntT'"'  '"^f"'  ''  "^««^'-  hy  ^kaline  or'Sy 
sulphurets  as  a  source  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  hydrate  of 
magnesia,  into  which  sulphuret  of  magnésium  is  rTdiÎy^olyed 
m  the  présence  of  ^ater.  (Chemical  Geology.  I^Qa'  iTaïï 
of  c^mm  were  présent,  this  reaction  coulf  ^nly  tle  pLceTn 
th  absence  of  carbonic  acid,  for  carbonafe  of  ma^esk  is  incom 
pattblewih  chloride  of  calcium.     The  direct  reduc  «3  '^ 

Snate  of  '^'  ^"^''''''  ^"'^  sulphuretted  hydn,gen  and 
c^bonate  of  magnesia,  and  thus,  in  certain  cases,  giyt  rise  to 
magnesian  sédiments.  ^ 

miWlint'w^th'°^T"°°';  ^^  ^^^«  «"PP^-'l  *h,  wate,. 
ïninghng  with  the  solution  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  to  contain 


•■V 


%;^\^'*i-^  li  m-_.'a«Î3,t 


r" 


^   ;;      -   •¥>» 


88 


CHEMISTRT  OF  DOLOMITES  AND  GYP8UMS.         [Vni. 


no  other  bicarbonate  than  that  of  lime  ;  but  bicarbonate  of 
soda  is  ofteu  présent  in  large  proportion  in  natural  waters,  and 
the  addition  of  this  sait  to  sea-water  or  other  solutions  con- 
taining  chlorides  and  sulphates  of  lime  and  magnesia  will,  as 
we  hâve  shown,  separate  the  lime  as  carbonate,  and  give  rise 
to  liquida,  -which,  without  being  concentrated  brines,  as  in  the 
préviens  case,  will  contain  sulphate  of  magnesia,  but  no  lime- 
salt^  A  further  portion  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  will  produce 
bicarbonate  of  magnesia,  by  the  evaporation  of  whose  solutions, 
as  before,  hydrated  carbonate  of  magnesia  would  be  deposited, 
mingled  with  the  catbonate  of  lime  which  accompanies  the  alka- 
line  sait,  and  in  the  case  of  the  waters  of  alkalihe  springs,  the 
compounds  of  iron,  manganèse,  zinc,  nickel,  lead,  copper,  arsenic, 
chrome,  and  other  metals,  which  springs  of  this  kind  still  bring 
to  the  surfece.  In  thi»way  the  inetalliferous  character  of  many  _. 
dolomites  is  explained.  "^ 

As  the  séparation  of  magnesian  carbonate  from  saline  waters 
by  the  action  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  does  not  suppose  a  very 
great  degree  of  concentration,  we  may  conçoive  this  process 
to  go  on  in  basins  where  animal  life  exists,  and  thus  explain 
the  origin  of  fossiliferous  magnesian  limestones  like  those  of 
Dudswell  and  the  palœozoic  formations  of  the  western  United 
States,  whose  organic  remains,  as  I  am  informed  by  Professer 
James  Hall  of  Albany,  are  generally  such  as  indicate  a  shallow 
sea.  To  the  intervention  of  carbonate  of  soda  is,  I  conçoive, 
to  be  refened  the  origin  of  ail  those  dolomites  which  are  not 
accompanied  by  g3rpsums,  and  which  make  up  by  far  the  larger 
part  of  the  magnesian  limestones  ;  nor  will  the  dolomites  thus 
deîived  be  necessarily  marine,  for  the  same  reagent,  with  waters 
like  those  of  the  Danube  and  Arve,  would  give  rise  to  dolomites 
and  magnesites  in  fresh-water  formations,  which  would  not  be 
accompanied  by  gypsums. 

To  the  first  stage  of  the  reaction  between  alkaline  bicarbon- 
ates anà  sea-water  I  am  disposed  to  ascribe  the  formation  of 
certain  deposits  of  carbonate  of  lime  which,  although  included 
in  fossiliferous  formations,  are,  unlike  most  of  their  aèsociated 
limestones,  not  of  or^nic  origin,  but  bavé  thé  c^ufaétefS  of  a' 


ms 


"■•**^      ^jf-FI'-      «t 


!^  -  -,  ^■î'*'..'p^^^^ 


CHEMISTRY  OF  DOLOMITES  AND  GTPSUMS.     1         89 


vm.] 


cheimcal  precipitate  of  nearly  pure  carbonate  of  lime,  in  which 
^  often  unbedded  silicified  sh^  and  comls.*     It  L 17  net 
haps  easy  m  aU  cases  to  distin&  between  such  p^pLtL 
w^ch  may  assume  a  concx^tionary  structure  (se.  on  ThCet 

sTS  ^  nTh      '''  ^^'  ^'^  ^^"^^^  ^^  subterr^eau 
with  the  tufaceous  limestones  mentioned  above  °^''^^"'f 

The  union  of  the  mingled  carbonates  of  hm'e  and  ma^mesia 
to  form  dolomite  is  attended  with  contraction,  which^Tle 
the  sedunent  waa  already  somewhat  consolida^  wo^ld  Z 
me  te  fissures  and  cavities  in  the  mass.  Should  the  dolom^tlc 
Td  w^  ^^*«7^«^-P0-d  te  the  action  of  infiltratLg  cXn 
ated  waters  the  excess  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  any  c^cai^oi 
fos^ils  would  be  removed,  ifeaving  the  mass  still  mo,^  ZT 
and  wxth  only  the  moulds  of  the  fossils.    Insoluble,  hoC^,' 

cpncretions  and  even  Sds  of  flS  ""^  "?'«='"«  ^"««Us  and  forming 

the  Advance^ent  of  Scient  lï  T^l^l^'^^mZÙ:^"::^: IZ 
crystallinechanicterof  the  grains  composing  certain  sankslontl  OWo  L 

TTiese  crystallized  sand»,  according  to  Danbrte,  are  met  with  in  beda  in  H.« 
.TdlTfi?'  """^  thevariegated  sandst^ne  (Tr^L^^c  JTd  Pemial, 

deposit,  and  associated  with  otilitlc  iron  or«8  in  the  lias  and  v,ith  l}^,u^!T 
g^insintheg^jen-sand.     (Daub.^.  Rechen^hes  s^  t' Striaje  def  S  ï 

the  green-sand  of  the  Ardennes,  whieh  gave  to  Sauvam  XoV ^^.T 
"luch,  I.  768-  "11!)^  *tth^w«tMa«l  «hl  glauconite.    ^Bchof,  Lehr- 


.»^#*'M»?JW<i 


/r 


90 


CHEMISTEY  OF  DOLOMITES  AND  GYPSUMS.        [VIII. 


as  it  appeara  to  be  at  ordinary  températures,  the  filling  up  by  it 
of  such  cavities  both  in  magnesian  and  in  pure  limestones,  not 
less  than  its  déposition  in  veins  and  druses,  indicates  that  dolo- 
mite is  under  certain  conditions  soluble  in  water. 


Condtuions: 

1.  The  action  of  solutions  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  upon  sea- 
water  séparâtes  in  the  first  jJace  the  whole  of  the  lime  in  the 
form  of  carbonate,  and  then  gives  rise  to  a  solution  of  bicar- 
bonate of  magnesiaj  which  by  evaporation  deposits  hydrous 
magnesian  carbonate. 

2.  The  addition  of  solutions  of  bicarbonate  of  lime  to  sul- 
phate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  magnesia  gives  rise  to  bicarbonates 
of  thèse  bases,  together  with  sulphate  of  lime,  which  latter  may 
be  thrown  down  by  alcohol.  By  the  evaporation  of  a  solution 
containing  bicarbonate  of  magnesia  and  sulphate  of  lime,  either 
with  or  without  sea-salt,  gypsum  and  hydrous  carbonate  of  mag- 
nesia are  successively  deposited. 

3.  When  the  hydrous  carbonate  of  magnesia  is  heated  alone 
under  pressure,  it  is  converted  into  magriesite  ;  but  if  carbonate 
of  hme  be  présent,  a  double  sait  is  fomied,  which  is  dolomite. 

4.  Solutions  of  bicarboiîate  of  magnesia  décompose  chloride 
of' calcium,  and,  when  depriv«d  of  their  excess  of  carbonic  acid- 
by  evaporation,  even  solutions  of  gypsunr,  with  séparation  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  -^ 

5.  Dolomites,  ^agnesites,  and  magnesian  maris  hâve  had 
their  origin  in  semments  ôf .  magnesian  carbonate  formed  by 
the  evaporation  ol  Solutions  ofl  bicarbonate  of  magnesia.  Thesé^ 
solutions  hâve  be^  produced  Ipither  by  the  action  of  bicarbon- 
ate of  lime  upcy^'éolutions  ofi  sulphate  of  magnesia,  in  which 
case  gypsum  is  &  teubsidiary  pioduct,  or  by  the  décomposition 
of  solutions  of  suliShate  or  chloride  of  magnésium  by  the  waters 
of  rivers  or  sprin^  containing  bicarbonate  of  soda.  The  sub- 
sequent  action  of  hieat  upon  such  magnesian  sédiments,  either 
alone  or  mingled  with  carbonate  of  lim,e,  has  changed  them 
into  ma^eaite  or  QoltHnite."  ■  -  - -*•     - 


•^i-, 


vm,] 


CHEMISTRY  OF  DOLOMITES  ANI.  GYPSUMS. 
SUPPLEMENT. 


91 


[In  référence  to  the  formah'r^n  «<?  ^  i     -^ 

waa  raised,  whsther  .U  the  deZlï  „,  1,1'.  "."'.  ""  l"»»"»» 
bMU  thu8  ieated   or  «wh„thT!t  "°  "*  '"''™  ""'é 

fonned  a.  W^X^.L^™^''  ""°"^'''  ''*"^'»'  «»  "» 

=oiuti„™  Mdi^  gypfr  L'tiitn  T"""!""''/' 

«nders  the  résulte  of  exn.rim«  T  •       "'«"«»  "ften 

ducted  in  an  atniosDhpr«  ^"*"'^'^7^®'^  *^®  evaporation  is  con- 
bonic-acid  gast^r^fp  ^eTs^^^^^  ^  ^^«  P-P-tion  of  ca. 
in  a  note  to  the  AmeriZ  A  "  -^  "^'"^^  ""^  ^^^  ^escribed 
Science.^in  AnJ^lm    'T'T''  ^''  '^'  Advancement  of 

-ia  and  bica^na^^t  Kn^r^t  TtC''''''  ''  ^^- 
sulphate  of  lime  to  the  ^ater  1  1  Ini'  f  ?  P^°P«rt^««  of 
saturated  solution  of  Z^^'V  '""^  ^  =  *^^^  ^^^^^  « 

'  tained  1  :  372  which  S"  P""*  '^*^''  ^*  l^"  C.  con- 

of  1  :  380.    TaSf  asTm^^^^^^  ""'"^'^  detennination 

litre  of  water  2  5o'Z^^  f  '^f"'  ^  ^  ^^^'  ^«  ^«ve  for  a 
^«al  to  3.16  of  g'  r^7j^  -Y^--  -Iphate  of  lime,  : 
I  hâve,  in  a  buZm.J  ?"^"''"^  P'^P^'^  ««  «bovê 
in'the  ;{,en  ai  1^^'^"^"''  ''P'^^  ^^  «^^P^^^^ion 
■  in  solufil  aTeoitET  ^"°^  ^  *^«  iitre,7eaving 
latter  compound^iu  otr^rT  ^'^^"*^-  «^  ^he 
«rammeaormagirefiTq^^^^^^^^  ^\^^^^^   ""^ 

dissolved  in  a  litre  of  w         tu  "^««ocarbonate)  were 

lents  of  carb»;-;  ;^d    I J  T  T^  T^  °^^^^  *"°  "«^^^^-- 


rijl-**'. 


■tH 


92 


CHEMISTEY  OF  DOLOMITES  ANQ  GYPgUMS.        [Vin. 


solutions,  permanent  in  the  air,  holding,  as  bicarbonate,  21.0 
grammes  of  monocarbonate  of  magnesia  to  the  litre  j^so  that 
the  solubility  of  carbonate  of  magnesia  under  thèse  conditions 
is  abput  liine  times  as  great  as  that^sulphat§  of  lime.  (Amer. 
Jour.  Science  (2),  XXVIII.  pages  170^178. 

The  fact  that  the-  séparation  of  the  carbonate  of  magnesia 
necessary  for*the  production  of  dolomites  and  jnagnesites  re- 
quires  the  absence  of  chbride  of  calcium  firom  the  waters  in 
which  itis  deposited,  —  whether  this  carbonate  is  generated 
by  the  reaction  of  bicarbonate  of  lime  on  sulphate  of  magnesia 
(with  simultaneous  production  of  gyp»nm),  or  l?y  the  interven- 
tion of  bicarbonate  of  soda,  —  and  that  in  both  cases  isolated 
and  evaporating  basinb, 'are  indi8pensa"ble  conditions  of  the 
formation   and; déposition  of  '  this  magnesian  catbonate,  was 
clearly  pointed  out,  as  above,  in  185».  ,  The  lègitimate  dé- 
ductions from  this  as  to  the  geographical  and  climatic  condi- 
tions of  régions  during  the  formation  of  magae^ian  limestones 
*  were  further  insisted  upon  in  a  paper  upon  the  Geology  of 
Southwestem  Ontario,  in  1868,  and  again  in  1871,  in  paper 
XIIL  of  the  présent  volume.     (See  also  ante,  page  74.) 

It  waa  nqt,  however,  I  believe,  till  1871  that  thèse  views 
of  mine  found  récognition,  when  Professor  A.  C.  Eamsay,  by 
the  investigation  of  the  magnesian  Umestone  of  the  Permian 
in  England,  was  led  to  reject  as  untenable  the  notion  held  by 
Sorby  (and  by  others),  that  this  was  once  an  ordinary  hme- 
stone  of  organic  origin  subsequently  impregnated  with  magne- 
sian carbonate  under  conditions  not  explained  ;  and",  to  con- 
clude  that  the  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia  of  which  it 
is  composed  had  been  "deposited  simultaneously  by  the  con- 
centration of  solutions  due  to  evaporation,"  "  in  an  inland  sait 
lake."    To  this  view,  as  he  informa  us,  he  was  led  by  physi- 
cal  considérations,  and  by  the  depauDcrated  condition  of  the 
organic  remains  contained  in  thesamrata,  without  bemg,  at 
the  time,  aware  that  I  had  twelve  years"  prevîously  announced 
the  same  conclusions  for  aU  magnesian  limestones,  and  estab- 
lished  them  on  chemical  grounds.     (Quar.  GeoL  Jouir.,  1871, 


*  x'  ,  ..  .  ,_^ , 


jM,^i'v»i»i,jn    .  1 


\  (  i! 


IX. 


THÈ^CHEMISTRY  OF  NATURAL 
WATERS. 


the  Appoudlx  a^  W  tha  Report  of  the  Oeolo^^er  ^^^fZ^T" 

Zff        t  "^  ^  '°""^^^^  «°^«  général  prmdple^  which 

waters.  The  second  paît  wiU  embrace  a  séries  of  chemical 
analyses  of  mmeral  waters  frôm  the  palœozoic  ™cks  of  tte 
Champlam  and  St.  Lawrence  and  Ottewa  basins,  together  w^^ 
so^nve^watefs;  and  the  third  part  will  consist%hie%  of 
déductions  and  generalizations  from  thèse  analyses.    . 

View  rej«^ted:  16   W  PomrftTf       'f^'"'**'  "^  "^^  !*•  ^i<^^of'à 

wateis;  19.  Origin  of  sul^:^  of  ^^^ia"!  ^'^T^Mit   T^v  "^^^^^ 
wjected:  22.23   Sait»  tJL  «„        ""HSnesia,  ^,  Ji.  Mitscherhch's  view 

magnMia,  and  dolomite-  as  w.l  ^"     If  °  "'gyp»"™,  carbonate  of 

«cid»!  81.  Of  carbonic-adT™!  ^  li  :        °f  hydrD.n,lphnric  an^  borio 
ficationofminemliater  ^' ^»^°°i~^  **Its;  33-36.  dasd- 

is  Lv«Jl'  80W  powers  of  water  ai«  such  that  this  liquid 


r: 


94 


CHEMISTBY  OF  NATtJRAX  WATERS. 


[IX, 


meteoric  watera  hold  in  solution,  beaides  nitrogçn,  oxygen, 
carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  and  nitrous  compounds,  small  quan- 
,  tities  of  solid  matters  which  were  previously  suspended  in  the 
fonn  of  dust  in  the  atmosphère.  After  falling  to  the  earth, 
thèse  same  watera  become  still  further  impregnated  with  for- 
eign  éléments  of  very  variable  nature,  accoiding  to  the  con- 
ditions of  the  surface  on  whicb  they  fall. 

§  2.  Atmospheric  waters,  conjing  in  contact  with  decaying 
végéta  ble  mattera  at  the  earth's  surface,  take  from  them  two 
classes  of  soluble  ingrédients,  organic  and  inorganic.  The 
Avatera  Sf  many  streams  and  rivera  are  colored  brown  with  dis- 
sol^ed  organic  matter,  and  yield,  when  evaporated  to  dryness," 
colored  residues,  which  carbonize  by  beat.  This  organic  sub- 
stance, in  some  cases  at  l^ast,  ia  azotized,  and  simUar,  if  not 
identical,  in  composition  and  properties  with  the  apocrenic 
acid  of  Berzelius.  The  decaying  végétation,  at  the  same  time 
that  it  yields  a  portion  of  its  organic  matter  in  a  soluble  form, 
parts  with  the  minerai  or  cinereal  éléments  which  it  had  re- 
moved  from  the  soil  during  life.  The  salts  of  potassium,  cal- 
cium, and  magnésium,  the  silica»  and  phosphates,  which  are  so 
essehtial  to  the  growing  plant,  are  liberated  during  the  process 
of  decay  ;  and  hence  we  find  thèse  éléments  almost  wanting  in 
peat  and  coal.  (See  on  this  point  the  analyses  by  Vohl  of 
peat,  peat-moss,  and  the  soluble  matterà  set  firee  dming  its 
decay  ;  Ann.  der  Chem.  und  Pharm.,  CIX.  185.  AJso  Liebig, 
analysis  of  bog-water,  Lettera  on  Modem  Agriculture,  p.  44  ; 
and  ia  the  second  part  of  this  paper,  the  analysis  of  the  water 
of  the  Ottawa  River.) 

§  3.  At  the  same  time  an  important  change  is  effected  in 
the  gaseous  contents  of  the  atmospheric  watera.  The  oxygen 
which  they  hold  in  solution  '  is  absorbed  by  the  decaying 
organic  matter,  and  i;eplaced  by  carbonic  acid  ;  while  any 
nitrates  oç  nitrites  wjiich  may  be  présent  are  by  the  same 
means  reduced  to  the  jbtate  of  ammonia  (Kuhlmann).  By  thus 
losing  oxygen,  and  tt^king  up  a  readily  oxidizable  organic  mat- 
ter,  thèse  watera  be(;^Ome  ledacing  instead  of  oxidizing  média 


in  theii  further  pro^gresa 


,.jMi,._ 


t^A^^^.ïTi'^wni^çssr'^ 


M  f 


^IX] 


CHEMISTRY  OF  NATURAL  WATERS. 


95 


,      -^  §4.  "We  hâve  thus  fer  con«iflo«wî  *i.  •  . 

portion  of  then.,  sooner^f  lait  tlt    '"""'  '  '"*  ^  ^'' 
.  meable  atrata,  by  whiclr  tW        *ï"'^'''^«'  «««^«  "Pon  per- 

the  watexB  «Cd^ith  oS^T.  «^^^^«^ary  st^ta  and 

position  of  thèse  wate^rpe^L  tt '^'*""'-  ^^^  ^«•"- 
to  the  sodium,- a  We  irnf^'  ^^  '"°*^^"'  ^^«*i^«^y 
Botable  quantitieeV^^ien  '^  P°*r  "«^  ^t«.  Résides 
the  dissolved^.^.ie  -^^  td  t^^  el"'f  "^  *^ 
m  many  cas^  ammoniacal  aalt^  ""^û«  earttf^  carbonates,  and 
sulphuric  acid  and  cEe^  ZL"  "''^  '^  "*"^^'  ^he 
tmlize  the  alkalies.  wWch  arn^T'"^''  ""''  '^^^^^^^^  ^  ^«^- 
Bilica  or  with  an  Ô^Tnie  acfd  "^^    ""  ^"  ^'^  ^^^^^^^^^  ^^^^^ 

ew  S::  x'TuTjLrf' rr  ^^^  ^^^-  ^- 

argillaceous  sédiment!,  tl  rparT^rl'  "*'  "^^^*  ^^^  ^ 
nia,  silica,  phosphoric  acid  and  n^T*^  P"*^^'  '^"^'^ 

iB  combination  with  the  so^  S  T'^'  ^^^^  ^"^^^^ 
tions  at  least,  nei ther  sida  ilm!  ^'''  ^'''  ^^'^^'^^  «««^i- 
Bor  chlorine  Ir^  i^tled  tÏ^''  ^°T'  ^"^P^""«  «^^d' 
^-  the  experimentrof  Eicltj^^^^  ^f  ^P^-' 

«etion  of  hyd^ted  double^aî^^f  s^Tes^ld"^^^^  '^' 

phos^hftesL^^pIl^^^^  -^-<i     The 

or  peroxide  of  iron  a^d  ^«  r^  combmation  with  alumina 
enter  into  ^«0^  ctbination^"  1717"^^^  ^° 
actions  that  the  eurface-waS  !k     ^  '  ^^  *^^«  ^ 

vegetable  de<^y,  after  W?  h   T^  ^*^  '^'  P^^'^^*^  «^ 

argillaceous  sedLntsreCrLeT  ^r^'*  '"  "°*^''*  "^*^ 
or  carbonates  of  sodl'  i    "d  '"  '"^P^^*^'  «"«"«i^^' 


""  *^'  ^^'  ««  again  restored  to  it;  and 


^ii/ 


^|Ui'.iJ>A.(rfïV>' 


z'.  v\^^|y^  J^^  "4=1 


96 


CHEMISTRY  OP  NATURAX  WATEBS. 


IX.] 


from  tliia  reaction  résulta  the  small  proportion  of  potash-salts 
in  the  waters  of  ordinary  springs  and  wella  as  compared 
with  river-watera.  From  the  waters  of  rivera,  lakes,  and  seaa, 
aquatic  plants  again  take  up  the  dissolved  potash,  phosphates, 
and  silica  ;  and  the  subséquent  decay  of  thèse  plaMs  in  con- 
tact with  the  ooze  of  the  bottom,  or  on  the  shores,  again 
restores  thèse  éléments  to  the  earth.  See  a  remarkahle  essay, 
by  Forchhammer,  on  the  composition  of  fucoids,  and  their 
geological  relationa,  Jour,  fur  Prakt.  Chem.,  XXXVI.  386. 

§  6.  The  observations  of  Eichhom  upon  the  reaction  be- 
tween  solutions  of  chlorides  and  pulverized  chabazite,  which, 
as  a  hydrated  silicate  of  alumina  and  lime,  may  perhaps  be 
taken  as  a  représentative  of  the  hydroua  double  ailicatea  in 
the  aoil,  show  that  thèse  substitutions  of  protoxide  bases  are 
neither  complète  nor  absolute.  It  would  appear,  on  the  con- 
trary,  that  there  takes  place  a  partial  exchange  or  a  partition 
of  bases  according  to  their  respective  affinities.  Thus  the  nor- 
mal chabazite,  in  présence  of  a  solution  of  chloride  of  sodium, 
exchanges  a  large  portion  of  its  lime  for  aoda  ;  but  if  the  re- 
sulting  soda-compound  be  placed  in  a  solution  of  chloride  of 
calcium,  an  inverse  substitution  takes  place,  and  a  portion 
of  lime  entera  agairi  into  the  silicate,  replacing  an  équivalent 
of  soda  ;  while,  by  the  action  of  a  solution  of  chloride  of  potas- 
sium, both  .lime  and  soda  are,  to  a  large  extent,  replaced  by 
potash.  In  like  manner,  chabazite,  in  whicll|Pby  the  action 
of  a  solution  of  sal-ammoniac,  a  part  of  the  lime  has  been 
replaced  by'ammonia,  will  give  up  a  portion  of  the  ammoni% 
not  only  to  solutions  of  chlorides  of  potassium  and  âodium,  but 
even  to  chloride  of  calcium.  It  reaults  from  thèse  mutual  de- 
'  compositions  that  there  is  a  point  where  a  chabazite  contain- 
ing  both  lime  and  soda,  or  lime  and  anunbnia,  would  remain 
unchanged  in  mixed  solutions  of  the  correaponding  chlorides, 
the  afi&nities  of  the  rival  baaea  being  balanced.*  Inasmuch, 
however,  as  the  proportions  of  ammonia  and  potash  in  natural 
waters  are  usually  small  when  compaied  with.  the  amounts  of 
lime  and  soda  existing  in  the  form  of  hydro-silicates  in  the 

*  Amer.^<^grSeteB<»^%XXYIIL  72. .  ^ 


'    iii. 


l^.l.i'ï^S'^ît^l      .  t,  V 


-H' 


r 


IX] 


CHEMISTRY  OP  NATUEAL  'WATEES. 


97 


soil,  tho  resuJt  of  thft««  oflî„v     • 

tion  of  the  axu.onL::d  potTfr  ^  ""T'  ^^"^^^^  «'-- 

of  liebig,  DehéLn,  and  oZrs     T'?    "^  *^'  expérimenta 
solution  of  gyp3^  Zvea  fZl';  ''^'^  ^'«^^^«'^  *^>«'  - 

gypBeouB  waters  may  a^o  '.  ^"^  ^'*«''-     ^^  ^^  way 

fiom  silicates.  ^  ^  "'^"^  ^^^^^^  «^  «u^pbate  et  sodl 

It  ia  not  certain  that  nll  +k«    v  ' 

chabd^te  are  appLwe  ^Ih.  /    ?  '"'''"''^^  °^««^«d  for 
hydr?duminoJS^7;tï-  ^^^'^^^-^  ^  t^e  double 
tbe  caae,  in^portan^Th^L  S'ri^^*"^     ^^  -h 
effected  in  the  con^poaition'Tf  2e  wiri/"*"^"'  ^« 
of  a  great  amount  of  a  hydror^LTf     .  r       ""  ""  P^«»«e 
solutiona  of  çhlo,^«  ,,  Srl^t?    ^'  '"'  ^^"°^^-' 
amount  of  chloride  of  calcium     ZH  T'^t  ^^  ««^«dexable 
reactions,  however  important  th.v  ^  ^'""^^^^^  *^^*  *î^e«e 

soil,  and  to  surface-wC^thTh    ^^.  \V"  ^''^"^^  *«  t^e 
tion,  hâve  at  présent  buT  iSL  infl  ""''  "^^  ^^P^^- 

of  the  atronger  saline  w  t  ^  It  ia T  '"  *''  ""^"^'^- 
that  the  Vtionof  the  ancienr«'«„i/  7T'  "^^^  impossible 
of  chloride  of  calciurulTthX  ?^'?^  '  ''"^^  «"»-"* 
feldapars  which  constitutd  ,'  ï'^  ^  .hf  '^'^-P-'^ 
«iven  riae  to  thœe  double  eili^L  1  f  1  '  P'"°^'  "^^  ^«^ 
■    ^^^p-abundantinr^tdttt^^^  '^^  ^^^«^^ 

th/case^^wrtpj::/j:r  rr  ^'^  ^-^^^^^  - 

table  decay  ;  and  in  th^^^  '°^"^^^  ""***««  f«>m  veee- 

cj-  of  pLi;  firi'  Te^rrr  ^^^  '"^^^^'^ 

of  the  dissolved  oréanic  ma^;  L  ..  '^^''^idizing  power 
the  insoluble  perôSde  of T<^  .  ^^ 'ï"  *''*''^'*  °^  *J^^  "Pon 
of  ferruginous  miTmÏ  and T  "^  ^"^  *^«  decompoaiMon 
toxideTironiaCX'^tl^;"^^^^^^^  ' 

«D<1  in  the  exceas  of  t£  oT^i       i"!^^'  ^*^  ^^  «^'^««i«  «^cid 

^«duuentr w-^Sefimés  enti«5^^S'?^^"^  °"f^^ 


g  ""lïîBiy  aepnved  of  iron-oxide,  aod 


itrifvM^^  > 


'   ■  ,  ,<^^ 


■:^ 


■1      :^. 


98 


CHEMISTKY  OF  NATURAL  WATERS. 


[IX. 


thus  beds  of  white  clay  and  sand  art  fonned.  The  waters  thus 
charged  with  proto-salts  of  iron  absorb  oxygen  when  exposed 
to  the  air,  and  theu  deposit  the  met^  as  hydrated  peroxide, 
which,  when  the  organic  matter  is  ih  excès»,  cames  down  a 
greater  or  less  proportion  of  it  in  combination.  8uch  organic 
matters  are  rarely  absent  &om  limonite,  and  in  some  spécimens 
of  ochre  amount  to  as  much  as  flfteen  per  cent.*  The  condi- 
tions under  which  hydrous  peroxide  of  manganèse  is  often 
found  are  very  similar  to  those  of  hydrous  peroxide  of  iron 
with  which  it  is  so  frequently  associai ed  ;  and  there  is  little 
doubt  that  oxide  of  manganèse  may  be  dissolved  by  a  process 
Hke  that  just  pointed  out,  A  portion  of  manganèse  has  been 
■  observed  in  the  soluble  matters  from  decaying  peat-moss  ;  and 
it  seems  to  be  generally  présent  in  small  quantities  with  iron 
in  surface-waters. 

§  9.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  alnmiria  is  also,  under 
certain  conditions,  dissolved  by  waters  holding  orgahic  acids. 
The  existence  of  pigotite,  a  native  compound  of  alumina  with 
an  organic  acid,  and  the  ôccasional  assodation  of  gibbsite  with 
limonite,  point  to  such  a  réaction.     That  it  is  not  more  abun- 

^-dant  in  solution,  H  due  to  the  fact,  that,  unlike  most  other 
metallic  oxides,  almnina,  instead  of  being  separated'in  a  free 
State  by  the  slow  décomposition  of  its  silicious  cQmpounds, 
remaina  in  combination  with  silica.  The  formation  of  bauxite, 
a  mixture  of  hydrate  of  alumina  with  variable  proportions  of 
hydrous  peroxide  of  iron,  which  forma  extensive  beds  in  the 

,  tertiary  mdiments  of  the  great  Mediterranean  basin,  indicates 
a  solution  of  alumina  on  a  grand  8cale,'and  perhaps  bwes  its 
origin  to  the  décomposition  of  solutioûs  of  native  alum  by 
alkaliiie  or  earthy  carbonates.  Emery,  a  crystalline  anhydrous 
form  of  alumina,  has  doubtless  been  formed  in  a  similar  man- 

.  ner.    (American  Journal  Science  (2),  XXXII.  287,  and  ante, 

^  i  page  Ï3.)    The  existence  in  many  localities  of  an  insoluble  subr 

sulphate  of  alumina,  websterite,  in  layers  and   concretionary 

masses  in  tertiary  days,  evidéntly  points  to  such  a  process. 

Compounds  consisting  chiefly  of  hydiated  alumina  are  frequently 

•  floftlngy  Af  rhnaHa,  p.  «18. 


y 


tii,., 


■^:t-. 


li] 


CHEMISTEY  OF  NATUKAL  WATEKS. 


99 


found  in  fissures  of  the  chalk  in  Emrknd       On  i\.      v 
(2),  XXXV.  292.  ^^        MUIler,  cited  as  above 

§  10.  The  organic  matter  dissolvfld   hrr  ♦»,»      ^ 

similar  metals  which  ni»v  be  Z^LTt  'T^^''  ''°** 

BulDhurets     Th«  A  ^  .      P'*^^°*'  gives  nse  to  metallic 

^^^  s  -^r  -^  "  ^tE.^ 

élément,  thr^m!^  wtiT.  ■"'"'^'  '""™™'  "»"  «•» 

»i;.™t  c^pL::  a^M^^u  """  ''~""»'"-  "'  '^ 

4^'Sri^ni''"p  *"  *'  '«■".fonction  „f  .  feld. 


^"-^'^-^'^^^^^^S^^^^^^^^ 


fe'AS..-  .•-'-• 


•^•'^'•'W^HH!!-»'^^*       ittn.*^^l.%i.^<ti^. 


Ai  ,  'ih  1. ,  "-    ii^<  ^ ,  »' 


V 


)•■..,,  \~f 


f^i  "f^h    '■'rï' 


100 


CHEMISTEY  OF  NATURAL  WATERS. 


px. 


^^ 


m-' 


alumina  ;  whUe  the  alkaU,  together  with  a  definite  portion  of 
silica,  is  separated  in  a  soluble  state.     The  Mdspar,  an  anhy- 
drous  double   sait  formed  at  an  elevated  température,  bas  a 
tendency  under  certain  conditions  to  combine,  -at  a  lower  tem- 
pérature, with  a  portion  of  water,  and  break  up  into  two  sim- 
pler  siUcates.     Daubrée  has  moreover  shown  that  when  kaolin 
is  exposed  to  a  heatr  of  400°  C.  in  présence  of  a  soluble 
siUcate  of  potash,  the  two  silicates  unité- and  regenerate  feld- 
spar.     Thèse  réactions  are  completely  analogous  to  those  pre- 
sented  by  very  many  other  double  salts,  ethers,  amides,  and 
similar  compounds.     The  preUminary  conditions  of  this   con- 
version of  feldspar  into  kaohn  and  a  soluble  alkaline  siUc^te, 
however,  stilL  require  investigation.     It  is  known  that  while 
some  feldspathic  rocks  appear  ahnost  unalterable,  others  con- 
taining  the  same  species  of  feldspar  are  found  converted  to  a 
depth  of  many  feet  from  the  surface  into  kaolin.     This  chemi- 
cal  altération,  according  to  Foumet,  is  always  preceded  by  a 
mechanical  change  of  the  feldspar,  which  first  becomes  opaque 
and  friable,  and  is  thus  rendered  perméable  to  water.     He  con- 
ceives  this  altération  to  be  molecular,  and  to  be  connected  with 
the  passage  of  the  silicate  into  a  dimorphous  or  allotropie  con- 

'  dition.* 

§  1 2.  The  researches  of  Ebelman  on  the  altérations  of  various 
rocks  and  minerais  hâve  thrown  considérable  light  on  the  rela- 
tions of  sédiments  and  natural  water8.t  From  the  analyses  of 
basaltic  and  similar  rocks,  which  include  silicates  of  lime, 
magnesia,  iron,  and  manganèse  in  the  forms  of  pyroxene,  horn- 
blende, and  olivine,  and  which  undergo  a  slow  and  superfioial 
décomposition  under  atmospheric  influences,  it  appears  that 
during  the  process  of  decay  the  greater  part  of  the  lime  and 
magnesia  is  removed,  together  with  a  large  proportion  of  silica. 


•  [Annales  de  Chimie  (2),  LV.  226.  It  is  a  snbject  for  inqniry  how  far 
such  changes  are  récent,  and  whether  ail  feldspars  found  thus  decomposed 
are  not  portions  which  hâve  been  preserved  to  us  from  a  remote  antiquity, 
when  atmospheric  agencies  more  potent  than  those  of  the  présent  day  were 
at  work.  Anle,  pige  10.] 
— «t- EbelmaB/BwqeB  des  Travaa»,n.  1-79. —         — 


5*#. 


• 

»■♦. 


f^     -  S     (  -  oj.       -   , 


IX.] 


CHEMISTÈY  OP  NATUEAL  WATEES. 


101 


It  was  foqnd,  moreover,  that  in  the  case  of  a  ronV 
composed  of  kbradorite  and  pyroxelT»     '         ,    ^PP^ently 

complète  than  that  of  the  a^S    «^  V"  """'^  "^"^ 
.       tivel,  greater  «tabUit,  of^f^  .t^re^r  ^tI:?^^-' 

position  of  thé  feldspar  in  thèse  mixad^t-    I     ^^'^'^^ 

length  effected,  and  the  final  Wt^lr  !  ""  ^°^'^^''  '' 
.  sihcate  of  alumina  or  clav    Tw*^  ","*"'  *«  ^  ^^«"^ 

c^tes  of  protoxide-bres  aXea^'^llT  ^TT'''''''  '^^  «"i" 
bonic  acid,  which.  reZZ^e  t^^^^  *'^  ^^^^«^  «^  - 
ates,  libérâtes  the  sihca  in  a  soLbï  f  T'''^  "^  ^^^«"- 

nwnese.  passing  t^  a  stat  'f  hTh  '  "' -'ï  '^^  "°"  '^^ 
behina,  unleTthe  action  nf.  ^  ''  «^^^^«««^  remaiu 

theTÏ-lubi^y  ^  °^  '^"^^  "^^'«^  i^tervenes  to  give 

mth  the  triclinic  feldspaïî'  ï  ^^'^^  «^^^«clase,  in  conunon 
as  thescapohtes/bery^and  S^      otW  feldspathides,  such 
that  under  orcftiarv  «^    T      ^'     '"'"J"'*'  ^*  ^  *«  ^^  «oticed, 
less  liable  totale  Than   r  T'"*""  ^^^^«^«  «PP-^^ 
albite,  oligocl:  aJlatdo^:  '^ZtJtT  'T  " 
become  covered  with  a  thin    Lft  \tt  ^'^  ^"'^*''' '^ '^^'^ 
f«)m  décomposition,   while     hrLactVl^^^^^       T' 
sinùlar  conditions  still  préserve  their  fZ^t  ^^^1:^^ 
A  graduai  process  of  this  kind  is  constantly  going^  Tt,f;    ' 
feldspathic  matters  which  form  a  We  pronortZ     Ak 
chanical  sédiments  of  aU  fonnatio  J  aTia  Iptt  Z 

Mure.    Th8  solubfe  alkaliM  «litate  resultinK  ftom  thi.  r^jT 

»  m  «.Jc^e,  de^mp^ed  b,  carbonate,  «Srdtresta 
.n  the  «d^enf,  giving  ri.»  to  ^cle,  „f  thèse  basTS 

^^^Xr  tr  ra^'r^:;:  ^  : 

HBpâTaîeaiïom  the  Dercoktinc  w.«.  .•_  „  "         »  ^  '^'^^  ^ 


---•--^^m^ui^^:.^^^ 


V 


102 


CHEMI8TRY  OF  NATURAL  WATEES. 


px. 


mentionëd  in  §  5.  Hence  it  happetis  that  apart  from  tlie 
neutràl  soda-salts  of  extraneous  origin,  waters  permeating  sédi- 
ments coutaining  alkaliferous  silicateâ  generally  bring  to  the 
surface  little  more  than  soda  combined  with  carbonic  and 
sometimes  with  boric  acid,  and  carbonates  of  lime  and  magne- 
sia  with  small  portions  of  silica. 

§  14.  This  çjcplanation  of  the  deconiposition  of  alkaliferous 
silicates  and  of  the  origin  of  carbonate  of  soda  is  opposed  to 
the  view  of  Bi«ichof,  who  conceives  that  carbonic  acid  is  the 
chief  agent  in  decomposing  fèldspathic  minerais.*  The  sol- 
vent  action  of  waters  charged  with  carbonic  acid  is  undoubted, 
as  shown  by  various  experimenters,  especially  by  the  Messrs. 
Koger8,t  but  this  acid  is  not  always  présent  in  the  quantities 
required.  The  proportion  of  it  in  atmospheric  waters  is  so 
inadéquate  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  suppose  some  subter- 
ranean  source  of  the  ^as,  which  is  by  no  means  a  constant 
accompaniment  of  natron-springs.  A  copions  évolution  of 
carbonic  acid  is  observed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lake  of  Laach, 
where  the  alkaline  waters  studied  by  Bischof  occur.|  The 
same  thing  is  met  with  in  many  other  localities  of  such  springs, 
among  which  may  be  mentionëd  the  région  around  Saratoga, 
where  saiine  waters  containiug  carbonate  of  soda,  and  highly 
charged  with  carbonic  acid,  rise  in  abundance  from  the  lower 
palaeozoic  strata  ;  but  farther  northward,  along  the  valleys  of 
Lake  Champlain  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  simUar  alkaline-saline 
waters,  which  abound  in  the  continuation  of  the  same  geologi- 
cal  formations,  are  not  at  ail  acidulous.  From  this  the  conclu- 
sion seems  justifiable  that  the  production  of  carbonate  of  soda 
is  a  process,  in  some  cases  at  least,  independent  of  the  présence 
of  firee  carbonic  acid.  In  this  connection,  it  is  well  to  recaU 
the  solvent  action  of  pure  water  on  alkalifetous  silicates,  as 
shown  more  especially  by  Bunsen,  and  also  by  Damour,  who 
foimd  that  distilled  water  at  températures  much  below  212° 
takes  up  from  silicates  like  palagonite  and  calcined  mesotype 

•  Bischof,  Chem.  G«ol.,  II.  131. 
+  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.  (2),  V.  401. 
.^=^Biachof,Ijehrbn>^Ir8S7~86& . 


4^-J^:iiMè^i^i^ 


■■\ 


J»%  **  ^TeC^^-i-^ttV  ■*  ^'   iM'^'x-^asfr  Jï^i'?'-!^^  'IlO'y'ay  î^^  ^î'i 


DL] 


CHEMISTBY  OP  NATUEàL  WATERS. 


103 


comparatively  large  amounts  both  of  silica  and  alkalies.     rAnn. 
Ohim,  et  Phys.  (3),  XIX.  481.)  ^^     ^. 

[The  View  advauced  in  §  13  is  to  be  understood  of  the 
subtenanean  décomposition  of  alkaliferous  silicated  minerais 
the  resuite  of  which  appear  in  waters  like  some  noted  further  " 
on  m  §  67,  where,  ûom  a  deficiency  of  carbonic  acid,  parte  of 
the  bases  are  présent  as  silicates,  as  in  the  solutions  p^pared 
by  Dai^uj    At  the  same  time  it  is  clear  that  carbonic^ 
gr^H^drs  the  process,  as  seen  in  the  expérimente  of  Eogers 
anmiiULyed  a  most  important  part  in  the  subaerial  decom' 
:  crystalline  rocks,  from  which,  as  Ebehnan  showed 
hâve  been  i^moved  not  only  the  alkalies  of  the  feldspar,  but 
the  hme  and  magnesia  of  the  hornblende.     The  absence  of 
any  excessof  carbonic  acid  in  many  alkaline-saline  waters,  a, 

TIk     T  1^,  .iTT"  *  '^'''^'^'^^  *^°^«"*  ^«'  the  View  set  '■ 
îortJi  in  §  13,  that  the  subteiranean  décomposition  of  alkahfei-  ' 

ous  sedimente  takes  place  independent  of  the  intervention  of 
carbomc  acid.] 

§  15.  Another  and  an  important  source  of  minerai  imprégna- 
tionto  waters  existe  in  the  soluble  salte  enclosed  in  sedimenterv 
strate,  both  in  the  soUd  stete  and  in  aqueous  solution,  and  for 
the  most  part  of  marine  origin.  In  order  to  form'  some  con- 
ception of  the  amount  ofsaUne  matters  which  may  be  conteined 
m  a  dissolved  stete  in  the  rocky  strate  of  the  earth,  I  bave 
made  numerous  expérimente  to  détermine  the  porosity  of  varions 
rocks  ;  a  few  of  the  resuite,  so  fer  as  regards  the  lower  pal^ 
ozoïc  formations  of  the  New  York  System  (in  which  occur  the 

further  deteUs  and  for  a  teble  of  resuite,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  Appendix  to  this  paper  in  the  présent  volume.  The 
volume^  w«er  enclosed  in  100  volumes  of  the  varions  rocks 
having  been  determined,  it  was  found  for  three  spécimens  of  the 
Potedam  sandstone  to  equal  2.26-2.71,  and  for  three  others  of 
the  same  rock,  much  more  porous,  6.94- 9.36.  For  four  spéci- 
mens of  the  crystelline  dolomite  which  makes  up  the  soJdL 

^r  tTOn^n??.   '^    ^^'^  ''°^'^®  ^"^  ^"^^  ^  1.89-2.63  and 


'%■ 


^: 


ïof  the  same  lock,  6.90-7.22. 


m'> 


T^ 


:p 


-•    :i 


104 


CHEMISTRY  OF  N^TUEAL  WATERS. 


[IX. 


h-t 


>'  §  }6.  If  we  take  for  the  Potsdam  sandstone  the  mean  of  tbîe 
first  three  trials,  giving  2.5  per  cei|t  for  the  volume  of  water 
which  it  is  capable  of  holding  in  its  p6res,  we  find  that  a  thick- 
ness  of  100  feet  of  it  would  contain  in  every  square  mile,  in 
ro^nd  numbers,  70,000,000  cubic  feet  of  water;  an  amount 
which  would  supply  a  cubic  foot  (over  seven  gallons)  a  minute 
for  more  than  thirteen  years.  The  observed  thickness  of  the, 
Potsdam  sandstonte  in  the  district  of  Montre(kl  varies  «from  200 
to  700 'feet,  and  a  mean  of  500  feet  may  be  a8sume4.  To  tliis 
are  to  be  added  300,  feet  for  the  Calciferous  sand-rock,  whdse 
capacity  for  water  may  be  ta^en,  like  the  Potsdam  sandstori^ 
at  2.5  per  cent.  We  hâve  thus  iox.  each  square  mile  of  thèse 
formations,  wherever  they  lie  below  the  water-level,  a  volume 
of  4^,000,000  cubic  feet  of  water^  equal  to  a  supply  of  a 
cubic  foot  per  minute  for  J06  years.  'ïhe  capacity  of  the 
800  feet  of  Chazy  and  Trenton  limestones  which  succeed  thèse 
low:er  formations  may  be  fairly  taken  at  one  half  that  of  those 
just'  named.  But  it  is  unnecessary  to  multiply  such  calcula- 
tions  :  ènough  bas  been  said  to  show  that  thèse  sedimentary 
strata  include  In  their  j>ofes  great  quantities  of  water,  which 
was  originally  that  of  the  palœozoic  océan.  Thèse  strata,  through- 
out  the  palœozoic  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  are  now  for  the 
greater  part  beneath  the  sea-level  ;  nor  is  there  any  good  rea- 
8on  for  supposing  them  to  hâve  ever  been  elevated  much  above 
their  présent  horizon,  Wells  and  borings  sunk  in  varions 
places  in  thèse  rocks  show  them  to  be  still  filled  with  bitter 
saline  wators  ;  but  in  régions  where  thèse  rocks  are  inclined 
and  dislocated,  sùrfEice-waters  gradually  replace  thèse  saline 
waters,  which,  in  a  mixed  and  diluted  state,  appear  as  minerai 
springs.  Thèse  saline  solutions,  other  things  being  equal,  will 
be  better  preserved  in  limestoneà  or  argillaceous  rocks  than  in 
the  more  porous  and  perméable  sandstones. 

§  17.  But  besides  the  saline  matters  thtts  disseminated  in  a 

dissolved  state  in  ordinary  sedimentary  rocks,  there  are  great 

volumes  of  saliferous  strata,  properly  so  called,  chaiged  with 

the  results  of  the  evaporation  of  ancient  sea-basins.     Thèse 

-strata  enclose  iwfr  only^^  gypaum 


FTff 


.:•*&% 


,!^^T^A^T«^."^^'3P!'.- 


K.]        CHEMISTEY  OP  NATURAL  WATEBà      :;i05 

régions  kr:ge  quantities  of  the  double  chloride  of  potaasium  ûnd  ' 
césium,  camallite;  and  in  othe,.  sulphate  ofCT^late 

l^llf  "^'^^  '^'""'^  ^«  ^^-^^  -^  éc- 
late.    Be^ides  thèse  ciystalline  salts,  the  mothei^iquî^       ' 

taming  the.  mor.  soluble  ^nd  uncrystaUizable  con^pord!  Zy 

,   ^  be  suppôsedto  in^pregnate,  in  some  cases,  th^^dtS 

of  thèse  sahferous  fonnation*.    The  condition;  undet  Xch 

hese  valons  salts  are  deposited  from  sea-water,  and  their^^ 

tu,ns  to  the  composition  of  the  océan  in  e^lier  geoW^ 

penods,  are  reserved  for  considération  in  §  22.     InfiiS 

watez.  remove  from  thèse  saliferoua  stmta  tli^^soluBlet^ 

Sei:'"''  ^^''"  ^'"^  *^«^«^-*  B.a-w.ters  of  X  ; 

S^^:  ""^fV  «  ^^"gW  ofJ.these  iiy  various  proportions  ' 
mth  the  alkahne  wate,«  whose  origin  has  beeii  descrM  S 
.  §  13  produces  mtermediate  classes  of  waters  of  Ich  ^Zs^ 
S  m  1  hâve  elsewhei«  desçribed  the  résulta  of  a  séries  of 

dredths  of  carbonate  of  m^agnesia    a  ^jî^.nTf  V       T  ^""' 
cal  urf  r,  wholly^ecomposed,  the  magnesian  sait  is  attacked  ' 


«  American  Journal  Science  (2),  XXVUI.  170. 


« 


.   '   • 


■àtùàli.i^    ..„4>^. 


.,    .11  .       <« 


1.  , 


t»      "Si 


.rfr- 


,"-m--'>-   î-r'-'l 


4#^ 


lOB 


CHEMISTRY  OF  NATURAL  WATERS. 


[IX. 


of  aoda  or  sulphate  of  magnesia  enter  largely.  The  sodarsalt 
may  sometimes  be  formed  by  the  reîtetion  betwèen  solution  of 
gypsum  and  natriferoua  Bilicates  referred  to  in*  §  7,  or  by  the 
décomposition  of  gypsuDji  by  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda; 
while  in  other  cases  its  origin  -will  probâbly  be  found  in  the 
natural  deposits  of  sulphates,  such  as  glauberite,  thenardite, 
and  glauber-salt,  which  ocour  in  saliferous  rocks.  A  similar 
origin  is  probable  for  many  of  those  springs  in  which  sulphate 
of  magnesia  prédominâtes.  This  sait  also  effloresces  abundant- 
ly  in  a  nearly  pure'  form  upon  certain  limestones,  and  is  in 
some  cases  due.to  the  action  of  sulphates  from  decomposing 
pyrites  upon  magnesian  carbonate  or  silicate.  In  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  cases,  however,  its  appearance  is  unconnected 
with  any  such  process  ;  and  is,  according  to  î^itscherlich,  due 
to  a  reaction  between  dolomite  and  dissolved  gypsum. 

§  20.  In  support  of  this  view,  it  was  found  by  the  chemist 
just  named  that  when  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  lime  was  made 
to  filter  for  some  time  through  pulverized  magnesian  Umestone, 
it  was  decomposed  with  the  formation  of  carbonate  of  lime  and 
sulphate  of  magnesia.  This  reaction  I  haVe  been  unable  to 
verify.  A  solution  of  gypsum  in  distilled  water  was  made  to 
percolate  slowly  through  a  column  of  several  inchés  of  finely 
powdered  dolomite,  and  affcer  ten  filtrations,  occupying  as  many 
days,  no  perceptible  amount  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  had  been 
formed.  Solutions  of  gypsum  were  then  digested  for  many 
months  with  pulverized  dolomite,  and  also  with  crystalline 
carbonate  of  ^magne^a,  but  with  similar  négative  résulta  ;  nor 
did  the  substitution  of  a  solution  of  chloride  of  calcium  lead 
to  the  formation  of  any  soluble  magnesian  sait.  Solutions  of 
gypsum  were  then  impregnated  with  carbonic  acid,  and  allowed 
to  remain  in  contact  with  pulverized  dolomite  and  Vrith  magne- 
site,  as  before,  during  six  months  of  the  warm  season,  when 
only  inappréciable  traces  of  magnesia  were  taken  into  solution. 
Thèse  experiments  show  that  no  décomposition  of  dissolved 
gypsum  is  effected  by  native  carbonate  of  magnesia,  or  by  the 
double  carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia,  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratuiB.  ;  ~  .7;'  " 


^it^^h^^ïî^^^tSirf    .'iï^-V,:4u^  (^  ïA.-§^fejjl'i\SÈl''jit't£B&<Î!tW  f  Jj^^.^  **•  £.. 


(h 


,        J^]  CHEMISTRY  OP  NATUEAL  WATERS.  I07 

between  solutions  of  gypsum  and  ^Z         •      t  "^''^^ 
rwith  the  ,ntPrv««f;    **^T^  ^^  ««^^^  magnesian  linwstones 

to  the  l™e  wlach  it  coatoins  «parale,  in  the  form  of^, 

W,  a«d  the  gmler  portioa  of  the  chloride  ot  «»Jium  c™w 
^out,na.earl,p„„atate.  The  mothe.li,„„. „f  .^eMe 
g»lty  1.24,  harag  lort  ahoul  four  ffllh,  of  its  chloride  of 
»od,„a,,  «toi  ooatataa  d«oly.d  .  u.^,  p„       j^^  ^^»^°  ^ 

of  magnée,.,  H  the  erapo^tion  ia  oontL^  at  the  oritalt 
^mporature  till  a  deneity  of  1.32  is  attatoed,  about  ooe  S 
of  the  mapieean  aulphale  sepamtéa,  mked  with  eommon  „lt  • 

p™  eu  phate  of  magnesia  now  cr,.8taUke8  out    Tbe  furlher 

e™^  the  potaa»um-«at  to  ,epMal«  in  the  fom  of  a  hydroua 
douMe^ehlonde  of  potaeaiuru  and  magneeta,  an  artmoLr 

I  *ne  nydrous  double  chlorid«.Af  Botusù»»^,;!)  ^..^    .  

carnaUite  bas  been  given,  occun  in  la,^  quantities  in  the  upper 


.4i.\^îL«i  ^  f-Êérf  , 


108 


CHEMISTRY  OF  NATURAL  WATEES. 


px. 


By  varying  somewhat  the  conditions  of  température,  the  sul- 
phate  of  magnesia  and.the  chloride  of  sodium  of  the  mother- 
liquor  undergo  mutual  dec^nposition,  with  the  production  of 
sulphate  of  soda  and  chloride  of  magnésium.  Hydrated  sul- 
phate  of  soda,  crystallizes  out  from  such  a  mixed  solution  at 
0"  a,  and  by  reducing  the -température  to— 18°  C.  thegreater 
part  of  the  sulphates  may  be  separated  in  this  form  from  thô 
mother-Vor  of  X.2i,  previously  diluted  with  one  tenth  of 
water  ;  without  which  addition  a  mixture  of  hydrated  chlonde 
of  sodium  would  separate  at  the  samé  time.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  température  of  the  mixed  solution  be  raisM  above 
50°  C,  the  sulphate  of  soda  crystallizes  out  in  the  anhydrous 
form,  as  tK^nardite.  By  the  spontaneous  evaporation  dunng 
the  beats  of  summer  of  the  mother-liquors  of  density  1.35,  a 
double  sulphate  of  potassium  and  magnésium  séparâtes.  Thèse  « 
reactions  are  taken  advantage  of  on  a  great  scale  in  Balard's 
process,  as  modified  by  Merle,*  for  extracting  salts  from  sea- 

water. 

§  23.  The  results  of  the  evaporation  of  sea-water  would 
'however  be  widely  différent  if  an  excess  of  lime-salt  were 
présent.  In  this  cmé  the  whole  of  the  sulphates  présent  would 
be  deposited  in  the  form  of  gypsum  at  an  early  stage  of  the 
evaporation,  and  the  mother-liquor,  after  the  séparation  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  commOn  sait,  would  contain  little  else  than 
the  chlorides  ôf  sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  and  magnésium. 

§  24.  A  considération  of  the  conditions  of  the  océan  in 
earlier  geological  periods  will  show  that  it  must  bave  con- 
tained  a  much  larger  quantity  of  lime-salts  than  at  présent. 
The  alkaline  carbonates,  whose  origin  bas  been  described  in 
§  13,  and  which  from  the  earliest  times  hâve  been  flowiiig 

strate  of  th^Baliferous  foimation  of  Stessfurth  in  Germany  ;  where  it  is  as- 
sociated  wM  a  hydrous  double  chloride  of  calcium  and  magnésium,  tachydrite, 
and  also  witb^a  sparingly  soluble  sulphate  of  magnesia,  kieserite,  which  con- 
tains  a  small  and  variable  amount  of  water,  and  is  snpposed  to  be,  in  its  nor- 
mal condition,  an  anhydrous  sait..  When  heated  to  redness  in  a  current  of 
steam  this  sulphate  loses  ail  it«  acid,  which  .passes  ofT  undecomposed. 

f  Seftjny  paper  in  Amer.  Jour.  Science  (2).  XXV.  361;  also  Report  of  the 

Juries  of  the  Exhibition  of  1862,  Oasa  IL  page  48. 


,i  4  •-  'fe-.i.îj.1 


/ 


PL]  CHEMISTBY  OF  NATURAL  WATERS.  109 

into  the  sea,  hâve  graduaUy  modified  the  composition  of  its^ 
waters,  separating  the  lime  as  carbonate,  ând  thïis  replaciug 
the  chloride  of  calcium  by  chloride  of  sodium,  as  I  hâve  long 
smce  pointed  out  {ante,  page  2):     This  reaction  has   doub^  '*- 
less  been  the  source  of  aH  the  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  earth's 
crust,  if  we  except  that  derived  from  the  décomposition  of 
calcareous  silicates.   (§.12.)     In  this  décomposition  by  cai- 
bonate  of  soda,  as  already  described  in  §  18,  it  results  from 
the  incompatibUity  of  chloride  of  calcium  with  hydrous  car- 
bonate of  magnesia,  that  the  lin^e  is  firet  precipitated,  with 
a  little  adhering  carbonate  of  n%neàia  ;  and  it  is  only  when 
the  chloride  of  calcium  is  ail  decomposed  that  the  magnesiàn 
chlonde  is  transformed  into  carbonate  of  magnesia.     This  lat- 
tèr  reaction  can  consequently  take  place  only  in  limitçd  basins, 
;or  in  portions  eut  off  from  the  oceanic  circulation. 
/      §  26.  It  follow^m  what  has  been  said  that  the  lime-salt 
may  be  elim^ated  from  '^water  either  as  sulphate  or  as  car- 
bonate^Itf  the  latter  case  no  concentration  is  required  ;  while 
injhe-former  the  conditions  are  two,  —  a  sufficient  proportion 
of  sulphates  to  convert  the  whole  of  the  lime  into  gypsum      . 
and  such  a  degree  of  concentration  of  the  water  as  to  render 
this  inspluble.     Thèse  conditions  meet  in  the  evaporation  of 
modem  sea-water;  but  the  evaporated  sça-water  '  of  earlier 
penode,  with  its  great  prédominance  of  Hme-salts,  would  stiU 
contam  large  amounts  of  chloride  of  calcium,  —  the  insolubiUty 
of  gypsum  in  this  case  serving  to  eKminate  dl  the  sulphates 
from  the  mother-liquor.    Evaporation  alone  would  not  suffice 
to  remove  the  whole  of  the  Kme-salts  from  waters  in  which 
the  calcium  présent  was  more  than  équivalent  to  the  sulphuric 
aeid;  but  the  intervention  of  carbonate  of  soda  would  be  re- 
quired. 

§  26.  In  concentrated  and  evaporating  waters  freed  from 
hme-salts  by  either  of  the  reactions  just  mentioned,  but  stiU 
holding  sulphate  of  magnesia,  another  process  may  intervene 
{ajue,  page  90).  The  addition  of  a  solution  of  bicarbonate 
ot  hme  to  such  a  solution  gives  rise,  by  double  décomposition^ 


dphste  of  lime  ahTIKcàrBOTiate  of  magnesia.    ïhe  foi^ei; 


iï«s^»._^-.SwV^vr_ï?^â  "i'  f    , 


•^: 


110 


CHBMISTRY  Oï  NATUEAL  WATEBS. 


[IX. 


being  much  the  less  soluble  dalt,  especîally  in  a  strongly  saline 
liquid,  is  deposited  as  gjrpaum  ;  and  subsequently  the  magne- 
sian  carbonate  is  precipitated  in  a  hyd^us  form.     The  effect 

'  of  this  réaction  ia  to  eliminate  from  the^  sea-water  both  the 
Bulphiiric  acid  ^d  the  magnesia,  without  ^e  permanent  addi- 
tion to  it  of  any  foreign  élément.  \ 
i  §  27.  Gypsum  may  thus  be  separated  &om  se)E^\rater  by  two 
distinct  processes,  —  the  one  a  reaction  between  sulphate  of 
magnesia  and  chloride  of  cakium,  and  the  other  between  the 
same  sulphate  and  carbonate  of  lime.  The  latter,  involAring  a., 
séparation  of  bicarbonate  of  magnesia,  can,  as  we  bave  seen, 
only  take  place  when  the  whole  of  the  chloride  of  calcium  bas 
been  èUminated  ;  and  if  we  suppose  the  ancient  océan,  unlike 
the  présent,  to  baye  contained  mOife  than  an  ei][uivalent  of  lime 
for  each  équivalent  of  sulpburic  a(^d,  it  is  évident  that  a  lake 
or'^basin  of  searwater  free  from  lime-salts  could  only  hâve  been 
produced  by  the  intervention  of  carbonate  of  soda.  The  action 
of  this  must  hâve  eliminated  the  whole  of  the  lime  as  carbonate, 
ac  at  leasïi  bave  so  far  reduced  the  amount  of  this  base  that  the 

'^ulphates  présent  would  be  sufficient  to  separate  the  remainder 

^by  evapoiation  in  the  form  of  gypsum,  and  stiU  leave  in  the 
ïnbti^er-liquor  a  quantity  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  for  reaction 
with  "bica^nate  of  lime. 

The  «iéfce  of  the  magnesian  carbonate,  whose  union,  under 
certain  conditions,  with  the  carbonate  of  lime,  gives  rise  to 
doloiûite  {aiUe,  page  90),  may  thus  be  due  either  to  the  re- 
action just  described  between  bicarbonate  of  lime  and  solutions 
holding  sulphate  of  magnesia,  or  to  the  direct  action  of  car- 
bonate of  soda  upon  waters  containing  magnesian  salts  ;  but, 
in  either  case,  -  the  pfevious  élimination  of  the  incompatible 

.chloride  of  calcium  must  be  considered  an  indispensable  pre- 
hminary  to  the  production  of  the  magnesian  carbonate. 

§  28.  To  the  three  princàpal  sources  of  minerai  matters  in 
minerai  waters  already  enumerated,  namely,  decaying  organic 
matters,  decomposing  silicates,)  and  the  soluble  saline  matters 
in  rocks,  a  few  other  minor  ones  must  be  added.  One  of  thèse 
is  the  oxidation  of  metallie  sulphurets,  chiefly  iron  pyrites, 


\(^. 


^f  :■■■ 


-"•firss^ 


C 


1^1  CHEMISTET^OF  NATUBAL  WATERS.  lU 

giving  rise  to  sulphate  of  iron,  and  more  rarely  to  sulphates 

l  Tr;  °^%  ""^''  "^^  ^"^«^  '  """^  ^y  «««««d^'ï  '«étions 
to  sulphates  of  alumina,  lime,  magnesia,  and  alkalies.    This 

procMs  of  oxidation  is  necessarily  superficial  and^local,  but  the 
soluble  sulphates  thus  formed  hâve  probably  played  L  not  un. 
important  part.    (§9.)  J  f  J      <*  ""b  un 

contain  chiefly  neutrnl  and  acid  salts,  there  is  another  classof 
waters  chara«tenzed  by  the  présence  of  free  sulphuric  or  hy- 
drochlQHc  acid,  or  both  together.  Thèse  acid  waters  sometimes 
occur  as  products  of  volcanic  action  ;  during  which  both  hydro- 

ms  latter  élément  generally  cornes  to  the-sufface  as  sulphu- 

deposit  its  eulphur  in  craters  and  fissures.  In  oiher  cases  Z 
Bhown  by  Dumas,  the  sulphur  and  hydrggen  may  be  sloWly  ^nd 
^ultaneously  oxidized  at  a  low  te;^,ature,  ^giving  Z2 

riv^th^d  ''^"'  '"'•  ^«*  l«-fr«q'^-t,however'is  prob- 
J%  the  direct  conversion,  by  combustion,  of  the  sulphui^tted 
hydrogen  mto  water  and  sulphun,u8  acid,  which,  afterwards 
at«^rbmg  oxygen  from  the  air,  is  converted  into  sulphuric 

§  30.  The  source  of  the  hydrochloric  acid  and  the  sulphur 
of  volcanoes  is  pçobably  the  décomposition  of  chlorides  and  sul- 
phates at  high  températures.  It  is  known  that  for  the  decom-' 
posU^n  of  earthy  chlorides,  water  and  an  elevated  tempT^tu" 

Tr^rï  '  '°'  !l'.^^«^''  température,  chloride  of  sodium 
^  readily  decomposed  m  présence  of  silicious  and  aluminous 
whTr^'  ^^  '''  intervention  of  water.  Another  agen^y 
whxch  probaWy  cornes  into  play  in  volcanic  phenomena  ifthat 

enahTfî!  ,  ?  ''^''^'  '^"''^^  *^«  «^^^P^^s  to  sulphurets, 
LtÏÏht'  'k'^ÎT  "^  -^-utlydisengaged  as  sulphu! 
r^tted  hydrogen  by  the  opération  of  watef.  either  with  or  with- 
out  the  intervention  of  carbonic  ,^id  or  of  silicious  and  aimlla. 

_2ÏÏ!i^Jf!L*''''  °^  «"^Ph^te^  in  contact  with  earthy 
iwa^uat  Iiberate-ttw  wdphrâic-acid  Wâ  mixtiue  of  M- — ' 


f  I 

■\1 


ij^ 


*ii(    V  •'«jij  -, 


'i.^i"^  ^^ii^  ui.^  ><(  i«*^î^»#.*^i 


^mJt-' 


,^' 


y  .^ 


112 


CHEMISTRY  Oï  NATUBAL  WATEBS. 


[IX. 


■VI 


phurous  acid  and  oxygen;  and  theae  imitirife  in  their  dwtU- 
ktion  upward  through  the  strata,  may  give  rise  to  gpnnga  of 
Bulphùric  acld.*  To  réactions  similar  to  thoae  juet  noticed,  in- 
volving  borates  like  stassfurthite  and  hayesine,  or  boric  aUicates 
like  touraaline,  etc.,  are  to  be  ascribed  the  large  amounts  of 
boric  acid  which  are  sublimed  in  some  volcanoes,  or  volatilized 
with  the  watery  vapor  of  the  Tuacan  tvffimi. 

§  31.  The  action  of  aubterranean  beat  upon  buried  strata 
containing  sulphates  and  chlorides  is  then  sufficient  to  explain 
the  appearance  of  hydrochloric  and  sulpharoua  acids  and  sul- 
phur,  even  without  ie  intervention  of  oiganic  matters,  which 
are,  however,  seldom  6r  nçver  wantipgi  whether  as  coal,  lig- 
nite, bitumen,  and  pyroschists,  or  in  a  more  divided  condition, 
The  présence  of  hydrogen  and  of  marsh-gas,  as  observed  by 
Deville  among  volcanic  products,  is  an  évidence  of  this.  The 
génération  of  marsh-gas  is,  however,  in  most  cases  clearly  un- 
connected  with  volcanic  action  or  subterranean  beat. 

To  the  décomposition  ôf  carbojiates  in  buried  strata  by  sili- 
cious  matters,  with  the  aid  of  beat,  is  to  be  ascribed  the  great 
amounts  of  carbohic-acid  gas  which  are  in  many  places  evolved 
from  the  earth,  and,  impregnating  the  infiltrating  waters,  giye 
rise  to  acidulous  springs.  The  principal  sources  of  this  gas  in 
Europe  are  in  régions  adjoining  volcanoes,  either  active  or  re- 
cently  extinct  ;  but  their  occurrence  in  the  palaBoafic  strata  of 
the  United  States,  far  remote  from  any  évidence  of  volcanic 
phenomena  other  than  slightly  thermal  springs,  tYiovra^i-m 
action  too  gentle  or  too  deeply  seated  to  manifest  itself  in  igne- 
ous  ei-uptions,  may  evolve  carbonic  acid  abundantly.  The  sul- 
phuric-acid  springs  of  western  New  York  aûd  Canada,  to  be 
described  fbrther  on,  are  not  less  remarkable  illustrations  of  the 
same  fact.  [The  origin  of  free  carbonic  acid  in  certain  cases  la, 
however,  doubtless  to  be  found  in  the  reaction  pointed  out  fur- 

ther  on  in  §  66.]  _  . 

§  32.  The  fréquent  presepce  of  ammoniacal  salts  m  volcanic 
exhalations  is  hère  worthy  of  notice,  especially  when  consid- 
ered  in  connection  with  the  rarity  of  nitric  and  ammoniacal 


"•  ïêê'îliè  aete  to  8  22,  on  kieserfttt^ 


'U^ 


m-  j->: 


*r, 


K  V 


■¥'   > 


■rarjv  /yw*     '  ' 


IX] 


CHEM^THY  OP  NATURAL  WATEBa 


113 

^^^A  '  H»""»,  etc.,  wDere  they  are  sometimM  nh. 

served  m  comparatively  hrae  amount«     Ti,^    """•««-imea  ot>. 
this  18  évident  rkrlk.LÏ?!:;^"'^'-    ^«  explanàtion  of 


this  18  évident  ;  for  oit 
ly  removed  from  the 
organic  matters,  con 
the  8oU,     In  conaequ— 
whether  of  the  preaefl. 
a  very  fixed  form  a  "ço: 


ùtrates  themtelves  are  not  direct- 
re,  by  th^  reducing  action  of 
amonia,  ihich  ig  retained  by 
ffinity  thé  argUlaceous  atrata, 
'  of  older  |6nnation8,  hold  in 

exista  as  an  ammoniacal  silicate  /x  «  \  tu  x-  ^'""""v 
boweve.  a8..eU  aa  7^^::lyVi^:aTn^^, 
from  ite  combùiation.  and  thùs  generate  the  ammoiSllL 
whichare  auch  iiequent  accompanimenta  of  volcanic  ph^m^^ 
The  nume«,U8  expérimenta  of  J)ele8ae  ahow  that  LZZZ: 

liîL!  /  '??'*'^'  ''.P'^"*  ^^  ^'^^  limeatones.  maria. 
^^  *f  «^dstonea  of  Wer  geological  periods,  ii  quan 
^^^  acarcely  mfenor  to  tho8e  in  aimilar  dep^site  of  modei 
^mes.  amounting  for  moat  of  the  ancient  aedimentary  stmte 
to  from  one  to  fivenhouaandthB  of  nitrogen,^^m  whtî  iJ 
wiU  be  aeen  that  the  quantity  oRthia  eh^M^  SÏeÏ 
m  the  rocky  atrata  of  the  earth'a  cruat  iaTT^t  '  . 

j  ^3.    If  we  attempt  a  chemical  claasification  6f  natural^ 
watera  m  accordance  with-  the  principlea  laid  down  in  t^  W 
ceimg^tiona,  they  may  be  conaideréd  under  the  fotwi!; 

Ai  Atmospheric  watem.     ' 

E  Wa^™  impregnated  with  the  aoluble  producta' of  vegetable 

^'  ^Sv  ^PP^'^^fl  ^*h  *e  salte  from  de«M)mpo8ing  feld- 
D.  Watera  holding  neutral  salta  of  sodium,  calcium,  or  magnésium 


♦  Ann.  des  Mines  (5),  rmï.  151 -6a. 


.miiijii^ib'j^  «s«  Âa  ibiiS     ' 


"fiW  '. 


.114 


CHEMISTRY  OF  NA.TUKAL  WATERS. 


[IX. 


0 


E.  Watere  holding  chiefly  sulphates  from  decomposing  pjnites  ; 

copperaa  and  alum-waters. 

F.  Waters  holding  free  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid. 

§.34.  The  name  of  minerai  waters  is  popularly  applied  oftly 
to  such  as  contain  sufficient  foreign  matters  to  give  them  a 
decided  taste  ;  and  bence  the  waters  of  the  divisions  A  and  B, 
and  many  of  the  feebler  ones  of  C  and  D,  are  excluded.  Those 
-of  E  and  F  hâve  peculiar  local  sources  ;  but  those  of  C  and  D 
are  often  associated  in  adjacent  geological  formations,  and  their 
commingling  in  varions  proportions  gives  rise  to  minerai  waters 
intermediate  in  composition.  In  accordance  with  thèse  con- 
sidérations, a  classification  of  ïnineral  waters  for  technical  pur- 
poses  was  adopted  by  me,  in  1863,  in  the  Geology  of  Canada, 
p.  631,  including  only  those  of  C,  D,  and  F,  which  were  ar- 
ranged  in  six  classes. 

I.  Saline  watei-s  containing  chloride  of  sodium,  often  with  large 

portions  of  chlorides  of  calcium  and  yiagnesium,  with  or 

without  sulphates.    The  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia 

are  either  wanting,  or  présent  only  in  small  quantitiea. 

Thèse  waters  are  generally  bitter  to  the  taste,  and  may  be 

designated  as  brines  or  bittems. 

IL  Saline  waters  which  diflfer  from  the  last  in  containing,  besides 

the  chlorides  just  mentioned,  considérable  quantities  of 

*  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia.    Thèse  waters  generally 

contain  much^(|mallei^  proportions  of  earthy  chlorides  than 

the  flrst  class,  and  hence  are  less  bitter  to  the  taste. 

m.  Saline  water^hich  contain,  besides  chloride  of  sodium  and  the 

carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  a  portion  «of  carbonate  of 

soda. 

IV.  Waters  which  diflfer  from  the  last  in  contaiAing  but  a  small 

.^.      proportion  of  chloride  of  sodium,  and  in  which  the  carbonate 

of  soda  prédominâtes.    The  waters  of  this  class  generally 

contain  much  less  solid  matter  than  the  three  previous  classes, 

^      and  bave  not  a  very  marked  taste  until  evaporated  to  a 

small  volume,  when  they  will  be  found,  like  the  last,  to  be 

Btnmgly  alkaline.  m 

Of  thèse  fous  classes,  I.  corresponds  to  tne  division  D,  and 
rV.  to  C,  wh3è  II.  and  III.  are  regarded  "as  resulCing  from 


^'\ 


m 


•M.iJtjSi't  ■  i    i  «<^  rniji 


IX.] 


CHEMISTRY  OF  NATUEAL  WATERS. 


115 


mides  and  iodid^  Tm  J'  ^  .  '''^''  "^"«^^^'^  ^^^^  bro 
présent.  wWle  bltesTlT,'''^"K  '  ^^^^^^^^  ^'^  ^«o 
of  .0.  -n^ane^fald^Iir^^^^^^^^^^^^  P-- 

vanous  watera  are  occflsmnnl],r  1  i  u       '^"^  présent.     Thèse 

w.t™,  with  th«  exception  onh^  tacld  ZTerl  r;1 
of  the  classes  above  describfid  2     a  I    *^^  ^^^  *^« 


• 

♦ 

■ 

• 

- 

-      '■- 

Mu. 

i.U* 

4r 

^    i         ■  ,  ■ 

(    . 

\ . 

1 

....ki^él£i'i£,t£L 


,-.f;. 


>'fM 


116 


CHEMISTRY  OF  NATURAL  WATERS. 


[IX. 


-/ 


n. 

Analyses  op  Vabiocs  Natural  Watebs. 

Contents  of  Sections.— 35,  36.  Waters  of  the  flrst  class;  37.  Their  prob- 
able origin  ;  the  élimination  of  sulphates  ;  38.  Séparation  of  lime-salts 
from|raters;  39.  Earthy  chlorides  in  saliferoua  formations;  brines  of 
New  York,  Michigan,  and  England  ;  foot-note  on  errors  in  water-anal- 
yses;  40.  Brines  of  western  Pennsylvania  ;  waters  in  which  chloride  of 
calcium  prédominâtes  ;  41.  Origin  of  such  waters  ;  séparation  of  magne- 
sia  as  an  insoluble  silicate;  42.  Water»  of  the  second  class;  43.  Waters 
of  the  thiid  class  ;  44.  Waters  ot  the  fourth  class  ;  CSiambly  ;  45.  Other 
waters  of  the  same  class  ;  Ottawa  River  ;  46.  Waters  of  Highgate  and 
Alburg;  47.  Changes  in  the  Caledonia  waters;  comparative  analyses; 
48.  Waters  of  the  fifth  class;  sulphnric-acid  springs  of  New  York  and 
Canada  ;  49.  Changes  in  the  composition  of  thèse  waters  ;  their  action  on 
calcareous  strata  ;  50.  Waters  of  the  sixth  claas;  their  various  sources; 
61.  Examples  of  neutral sulphated  waters;  sulphate  of  magqesia  waters. 

[§§  35,  36,  in  the  original  paper,  contained  descriptions  and 
analyses  of  eight  waters  of  Class  I.,  aa  definçd  in  §  34.  Thèse, 
with  two  exceptions,  were  more  concentrated  than  sea-water, 
containing  from  36  to  50  and  even  68  parts  of  solid  matter  to 
1,000.  The  composition  of  three  of  them  is  hère  given  :  the 
first  is  that  of  a  copions  spring  which  issues  frqm  the  Trenton 
Umestone  at  Whitby,  Ontario  ;  the  second  is  that  of  a  well 
sunk  into  the  same  hmestone  at  Hallowell  not  far  from  the 
last,  and  one  of  several  wells  in  the  vicinify  similar  in  charac- 
ter,  though  less  concentrated;  and  the  third  is  from  a  boring 
500  fe^  deep,  sunk  through  the  Médina  sandstone  into  the 
underlying  Hudson  River  shales  at  St.  Catherine,  Ontario.] 

Waters  of  Class  ï.                                        Whitby.  HaUoweU.  St.  Catherine. 

Chloride  of  sodium       .        .        .        18.9158  88.7315  29.8084 

«•  ■       potassium      .        .  .       traces  traces  .3555 

"         calcium      .        .        .        17.5316  15.9230  14.8544 

"         magnésium    .        .  .      9.5437  12.9060  3.3977 

Bromide  of  sodium     .        .        .            .2482  .4685  undet. 

lodide           "         .!     .        .  .        .0008-  .0133  .0042 

Sulphate  oflime .        .        .        . -,  2.1923 

Carbonate  of  lime 0411 

"  magnesia .        .        .  .0227         

"  baryta  and  strontia  .      nndet  

=^^fa^l,e9epart»    .r-^^^-     .        .     .;  *g.a03a  ^^8.0423_^    fiQ.fl076 


K-1  CHEMISTRY  OP  NATURAL  WATERS.     ^  117 

§37.  The  waters  of  the  first  class  cont#n,  besides  chloride 
of  sodxum  and  a  little^hloride  of  potassium^lrge  quantitiiof 
he  chlondes  of  calcium  and  magnésium,  amountLg  tog  Zr 

warlZ:;  "^  "'™^.^  °"^  '^  *^«  ««"^  contents^f  2 
water     Sulphates  are  either  absent,  or  occur  only  in  smaU 

quantxties  and  the  same  is  true  of  earthy  <^b<;nates  SaltH^ 
^Tj'^tTT^  a^  someti^es  présent  whUe  the  pr^oÏ 
riZble.  "^  "'^'"'  ^'^'^'^«.^  "*^^^^«'  ^-  «f*-^  -n- 

In  the  large  amo^t*of  magnesian  chloride  which  they  con- 
tain,  thèse  waters  resemble  the  bittem  or  mother-Kquor  whTch 
^mams  after  the  gréa**,  part  of  the  chloride  of  sodium  ht 
been  removed  from  se^watp,-  by  evaporation.  The  bUtern^  ' 
from  modem  seas.  however,  differ  in  the  constant  presen  eT 
adphates,  and  in  containing,  when   sufficiently  con^^Jd 

^§  r^oW  ^herea«,nofthis,asaWyport^out 
m  §  22,  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  in  the  waters  of  the 
présent  océan  the  sulphates  are  much  moi.  than^^val/nt  ïo 

gypsum,       iiut  as  shown  m  S  23  and  &  91  th^  ™„\.         ^  ., 
the  greater  part  of  the  lime  since  denosifaiil  a»  «    ^.       calcium 
portioa  «f  chloride  „,  „^^   ^„„^  ^  J^  «  ^  P- 

been  theT  ongin.  The  complète  .Uenee  of  siuSe.  toi™ 
of  earthy  sulphates  in  the  Cwnbrian  étala  fca^WcTttZ 
mmo  oede  of  the  Calciferous  eand-rock  of  smaU  masKe  of  <nm. 

Btock  itiver  hmeetone.  of  thie  région  ie  aUo  to  h,  nXl  m 
,        •  •'^'^"^  the  probortioM  of  nhlnridfl 


=*^  furtber  on  tu.  poïnt,  Bischof,  Chen,.  (Jeology,  I.  «a 


A 


,".  <î.-rfit.iî5,-i  (    - 


SiîA.»       .*'.^-JSx. 


•«^ 


118 


CHEMI8TRY  OF  NATURAL  WATEES. 


[IX. 


of  sodium,  varying  from  about  one  third  to  more  than  two  thirds 

■of  the  solid  contents  of  the  above  watei»,  it  is  apparent  that  ili 

most  cases  the  prccQSS  of  evaporatioû  had  gone  »o  far  as  to 

separate  a  part'of  the  common  sait  ;  and  thus  successive  strata 

of  this  ancient  salifârous  formation  must  be  impregnated  with 

'  solid  or  dissolved  salts  of  unUke  composition.     The  mingling 

of  thèse  in  varying  proportions  affords  the  only  apparent  ex- 

-planation  of  the  différences  which  appear  in  the  relative  amounts 

of  the  several  chlorides  in  waters  from  tlie  same  région,  and 

«Ar  even  firom  adjacent  sources.  _^ 

'    §  38.  The  great  solubility  of  chloride  of  calcium  .rçnders  it 
difficult  to  suppose  its  séparation  from  the  mother-liquors  so  as 
to  be  deposited  in  a  solid  state  in  the  strata.*    The  same  re- 
mark appUes  to  chloride  of  magnésium.     It  is  however  to  be 
remarked  that  the  double  chloride  of  potassium  and  magne- 
/      8ium.(camallite)  is  decomposed  by  déliquescence  into  soUd 
chloride  of  potassium  and  a  solution  of  chloride  of  magné- 
sium ;  and  thus  strata  Uke  those  whiçh  at  Stassfurth  contaia 
large  quantities  of  camalUte  (§  22),  might  give  rise  to  solu- 
tions of  magnesian  chloride.     This,  however,  would  require  the 
présence  of  a  large  amount  of  chloride  of  potassium  in  the 
eariy  seas.     It  appears  from  the  analyses  above  referred  to  that 
the  chloride  of  magnésium  sometimes  surpasses  in  amount  the 
chloride  of  calcium  ;  and  sometimes,  fjn  the  contrary,  is  equal 
to  only  one  half  or  one  fourth  of  the  latter  sait.     While  it  is 
net  impossible  that  the  prédominance  of  the  magnesian  chloride 
in  some  waters  may  be  traced  to  the  décomposition  of  carnal- 
lite,  it  is  undoubtedly  in  most  cases  connected  with  the  action 
of  solutions  of  carbonate  of  soda  ;  the  effect  of  which,  as  already 
pointed  out,  is  to  first  separate  the  soluble  lime-salt  as  carbon- 
ate, leaving  to  a  subséquent  stage  the  magnesian   chloride. 
(§  18.)     As  this  reaction  replaces  the  calcium-salt  by  chloride 
of  sodium,  it  might  be  e^ppected  that  there  would  be  an  increase 
'         ia  the  amount  of  the  latter  sait  in  the  water  wherever  the 
magnesian  chloride  prédominâtes,  did  we  not  remember  that 

JL[AhydrBt<HÏ  double  xiblorideotciacliun  and  m»ffM8ium  (tachydrite^  haa^ 


since  béen  fonnd  at  Stassforth.] 


^&%sti^-^  ^  i*^  I 


-^ 


n 


t  >■> 


IX.} 


CHESnSTRY  OF  NATURAL  WATERS. 


lia 


evapojation  séparâtes  it  from  the  water  in  the  solid  form  ;  and  ■ 
thaUhetwo  proches,  one  of  which  replaces  the'chloriie  of 

latter  sait  from  the  solution,  might  hav6  been  going  on  simulta- 
neou^y  or  alternately.     A.  the  nature  o^  the  wate^  nowlder 
conHidération  shows  that  the  process  of  evapo^tion  hadTea 
çamed  so  far  «s  to  separate  the  sulphate  in  the  form. fgyps'r 
.and  probably  also  a  portion  of  the  chloride  of  sodiriH 
oM  State,  xt  .  e^dent that  we  hâve  not  yetthe  data necessary 
for  determxnmg  the  composition  of  the  water  of  the  ancien! 
Cambnan  océan,  as  regards  the  proportions  of  the  sodium,  cal- 
cium, and  magnésium  which  it  held  in  solutio^;  and  we  can 
only  conclude  from  thèse  mother-Uquors.  that  the  amount  of 
the  earthy  bases  tvas  relatively  very  large. 

§  39.  As  already  remarked  in  §  22,  the  mother-liquor  from 
modern  séa-water  contains  no  chloride  of  calcium,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  large  quantities  of  sulphate  of  magnesia;  the  lime  in 
the  modem  océan  being  less  than  one  half  that  required  to 
^  combihe  with  the  sulphate  pissent.     If,  however,  we  examine 
the  numerous  analyses  df  rock-salt  and  of  brines  from  varions 
sahferous  formations,  we  shall  find  that  chloride  of  calcium  is 
very  frequently  présent  in  both  of  them  ;  thus  suppoiS^the 
conclusions  already  ap^(^unced  in  §  24  with  regard  to  tî^m 
position  of  the  ,eaa  S^lbnner  geological  periods.     ïhe  oldest 
8alifeK.us  formation  which  has  been  hitherto  investigatedis  the 
Onondaga  Salt-group  of  the  ^  York  geologists,  which  be. 
longs  to  the  upper  part  of  the  S@kan  séries,  and  suppUes  the 
8trong  bnnes  of  Syracus/  and  Sàlma  in  New  Jji     Thèse 
notmthstending  their  great  purity,  contain  smaif^oportions 
of  chlondes  of  calcium  and  magnesiu^,   as  shown  by  the 
analyses  of  Beck,  and  the  récent  and  careful  examinations  of 
Goessmann.     In  the  brines  of  this  région  the  solid  matters  are 
equal  to  from  U.3  to  16.7  per  cent,  and  contain  on  an  aveiage 
accordmg  to  the  latter  chemist,  Ï.64  of  sulphate  of  lime,  0^3 
of  chlônde  of  calcium,  and  0.88  of  chloride  of  magnésium  in 
'   ^°^       ^"^^  chloride  of  sodium/ 


-  Il 

à 


♦  Ooewnn^n,  Report»  on  the  Brinea  of  Onondam  :  STraciue  18M  ^r,A  i 
aUo  Report  on  the  Onoadi«.  Slt  Co.  :  SyratuB^wl  '         ^^ 


1 


r  ,^4'■ 


i,*'-^'■^•4J*4^  •  n-  *       "      ^    -  -  '    " 


X-i 


■^•âî; 


nearly  satùmteS  brinép-ipii  the-  Sagihay  valley  in 
Michigan,  whieh  Jtiav«>  their  soujbe  iWi  th^age  ^,the^bo  ^  ^ 
0U8  sMp»»  co»tain,  âcèb|i|pg  to  mj^^citPtiàâW^II  ?»  ^afjfei 
*  ^  1*-  Jte^-^^ig^  ùi*^00  parts  of  fip4||a|tém'^y?i^i<^to 
chloïide  pf  magnésium'^, 6  ^^iyph||a.of^^ 
mdetbekg  chiefly  chloridè  iof  «^dtti'^notbër 
ity  gave  to  Chilton  an  amount  of  ckloride 
^<»  é!t6  per  cpnt,*     In  a  specijnen  of  sait  man- 
^  région,  Goessmann  found%t©9  ôf  chloride  of 
àldd^fevtwo  speciinens  "of  sait  from  fy»  bripes  of  Ohio, 
*.v-^  «t--  aaroe  geological  horizon,  0-61  and  Î0  par  cent  of  the 
8aii]«8§îîdoride.     The  rock-sait  from  the  lias  (^i^heshire,  accord- 
ing  to  Nîcol,  contains  small  cavities,  partly  filM  with  air,  and 
partly  with  a  co^centrated  solution  of  chloTiderf^f  magnésium, 
r  with  some  chloride  of  calcium,  t  ,       ^ 

*  Winchell,  Amer.  Jour.  gci.  (2),  XXXIV.  311.  «,  - 

t  Edin.,  Neu.  Ph^^-JoûrT,  ViL  111.  Th^  résulta  of  thè  ànàlyBes  by  Mr. 
Northcote  of  th«rSf^s  of  Droitwich  and  Stoke  in  the  same  région  (L.  E.  &  D. 
Philos.  M^g.  (4),  ik.  32),  as  calculated  by  him,  sBow  no  earthy  chlotifleB  what- 
ever,  and  nO  carbonate  of  lime,  but  carbonates  çt  soda  and  magnesia,  and  sul- 
phates  of  «oda  and  lijnè.  He  regarded  the  ^hole  of  the  lime  présent  in  the 
water  as  being  in  the  fonn  oif  sulphate.  If,  ho^ever,  we  replace,  in  calculating 
thèse  antjyses,  the  carbonate  of  soda  and  sulphate  of  lime  by  sulphate  of  soda 
,  and  carbonate  of  liîne,  we  shall  hâve  for  the  contents  of  thèse  brines  :  —  chlo- 
ride of  sodium,  with  notable  quantities  of  sulphate  of  soda,  «orne  sulphate  of 
lii^e,  and  carbonates  both  of  lime  and  magnesia  ;  a  composition  which  is  more 
'  in  accordance  with  the  admitted  laws  of  chemical  combinations.  From  thèse 
results,  it  wottld  appear  that  the  earthy  chlorides,  wHch  acoording  to  Nicol 
are  present  in  the  rock-salt  of  thia  formation,  are  decomposed  by  sulphates  in 
the  waters  which,  by  dissolving  it,  give  rise  to  the  brines. 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  in  many  water-nnalyses  by  chemiàts  of  note,  the 


( 


results  are  so  calculated  as  to  represent  the  coexistence  i 
Of  the  association  of  carbonates  of  soda  and  magnesù 
as  in  the  analysis  just  noted,  it  might  be  said  that 
may  occur  in  the  présence  of  an  ezce&s  of  carbonic 
evaporatidKlhqwever,  such  solutions  regen^  ~ 
phates  oj^Hnand  magnesia;  and  by'the  c 
elemeniÉMy  be  represent«d  as  thus  com^ 
/  when  chl^de  of  magnésium,  carbonate  of  so 
afi  the  constituents  of  a  water  whose  récent 
number  of  the  Chemical  News  ;  or  when  bicarl 
lime  are  represented  as  coexisting  in  a  water  witr 
^[agnesinm  and  alùminum  t    Thèse  errors  pjTpbablj 


compatible  salts. 
Iphate  of  lime, 
flhown  that  it 
page  90).  By 
'  fime  and  sul- 
cheniists  tlBsse 
what  shall  be  said 
ite  of  soda  are  gf  ven 
■\)%  found  in  a  late 
la,  mitgnesia,  and 
'and  chlorides  of 
dotenuiuing^a 


V 


.  „U.J.       '»    1. 


■V-- 


'W:P'''-':-y 


4. 


KO  ■     CHEMISTAY  0»  NATUEAL  WATERS.       '  121 

JJll'?'^  ^^''  ^"^"^  *^'  ^*""y  ^'^  *^«  Alleghany  River 
obtamed  from  bonngs  in  the  coal  formation,  are  remarkable Ij 

■  '^T^T  ^:r^«^--  «f  «Worides  of  calciunx  and  ma^nJ 
8mm;  though  the  sum  of  thèse,  according  to  the  analyses  of 
le^y,  13  never  equal  to  more  than  about  one  fourth^the 

I^fn'.K  "t"'  ^'^  P--^-  of-Ite  of  barium  and  stron- 
tium in  the^e  bnnes,  and  the  conséquent  absence  of  Wphat^ 
18,  accordmg  to  Lenny,  a  constant  character  in  this  reS  ovî 

J,eol.,  I.  377.)  A  later  analysis  of  another  one  of  thèse  waters 
from  the  same  région,  by  Steiner,  is  cited  by  WiU  and  KopT 
Jahresben^ht,  1861,  p.  1112.  His  resuite  agre.^IyS 
those  of  ^nny.  See  also  the  analysis  of  a  Mtte,n  fromT^ 
région  by  Boyé.     (Amer.  Jour.  Sci.  (2)  VII  74  )*  ^ 

wîïr  Tî'n  ^'  ''"*'''  approa«h#rn  chamcter  to  those  of 
Whitby  and  Hallowell;  but  in  this  the  chloride  of  sodLm 

tZf'tÏ'  t^'r."^  '"^^  -lid  contents,  and  the  ^^^. 

re  atively  much  greater  than  in  the  watere  from  western  Penn 
sylvani^  where  the  magnesian  chloride  is  equal  o^y^  W 

tfoil  ^^"^^^^J^'^*  ^^  h^th  logions  to  consideJabte  varia. 

fT,«^"  ,*^  ««^«Jtion  may  be  ciW  a  water  from  Bi^  d'Or  in 
the  island  of  Cape  Breton,  lately  analyzed  by  Profe^or  How 

lS^.^n  «â^'^  ^'"^  ^''^^  «^^  «W^ride  of 
atéà  o^ËS^^^^^^'^^P^**^  °^^«  ^-134,  Carbon-    " 

m^piiaies,  _  1U.82F.     (Canadian.' Naturalist,  Vm.  370) 


portions ofaluminT  3etc     I„  thï  '«^™*«ï,'^ «"•'*»ates,  together^th 
f  carbonates.  the«,^^"s^e' cSIT  'Î*  "'  °"?"'^-'  '^^^ 

-*^Sui)ptem^jfôriS6  paper.]  ^  "^:^ 


^.  ■  ■■ 


/ 


122 


CHEMI8TBY  0^  NATURAL  WATER8. 


px 


-X- 


The  analj^ses  of  European  waters  funiish  comparativdy  few  ex- 
Amples  of  the  prédominance  of  earthy  chlorides.* 

§  41    We  hâve  alrefly  shown  in  §  38  how  the  action  of 
carbonate  of  soda  upoi  sea-water  or  bittem  will  destroy  the 
normal  proportion  tetween  the  chlorides   of  magnésium  and 
calcium  by  converting  £he  latter  into  an  insoluble^carbonate, 
and  leaving  at  last  only  salts  of  sodium  and  magnésium  m 
solution.     A  process  the  reverse  of  this  has  evidently  mter- 
vened  for  the  production  of  waters  like  that  from  Cape'Breton, 
and  some  otbers  noticed  by  Lersch,  in  wUch  chlonde  of  cal- 
cium abounds,  with  little  or  no  siilphate  or  chloride  of  magné- 
sium     This  process  ik  probably  one  connected  with  the  forma- 
tion, of  a>  silicate  of  magnesia.     Bischof  has  already  insisted 
upoû  the  sparing  solubUity  of  this  siUcate,  and  has  aaserted 
that  siUcates  of  aluiùina,  both  artificial  and  natural,  when 
digested  with  a  solution  of  magnesian  chloride,  exchange  a  por-  ^ 
tion  of  their  base  for  magnesia,  thus  giving  rise  to  solutions  ot 
alumina:  which,  being  decomposed  by  carbonates,  may  hâve 
"    been  the  «ource  of  many  of  the  aluminous  deposits  referred  to  m 
S  9      He  also  observed  a  similar  decomposition^tween  a  solu- 
tion bf  an  artificial  sUicate  of  lime  and  soluble^agneBian  salts 
(Bischof,  Chem.  Geology,  1. 13  ;  also  Chap.  XXIV.)    ^  ^P^at- 
■     ing  tiid  extending  his  experiments..!  hâve  confirmed  his  obser- 
vation that  a  solution  of  siUcate  of  lime  précipitâtes  sUicate  o* 
magnesia  from  the  sulpbate  and  the  chloride  of  magnésium; 
anihave  mq^over  found  that  by  digestion  at  ordinary  temper- 
•      atures  with  «i  excess  of  freshly  precipitated  silicate  of  hme, 
chloride  of  magnésium  is  completely  decomposed;  an  'nsolub  e 
^    Bilicateof  magnesia  being  formed,while  ^^'^^^^  ^f^;^^^ 
of  calcium  remains  in  solution.     It  is  clear  that  the  grêàt  r 
insolubility  of  the  magnesian  silicate,  as  compaèed  with  sUicate 
of  lime,  détermines  a  resuit  the  very  reverse  of  that  produced  by 
carbonates  with  solutions  of  the  two  e^rihy  bases,   ^û  the  one 

'         •  Lersch  Hydro-Chemie,  Z;relte  Auflage  :  Berlin,  1864;  vide  p.  207.    TW» 
exceSt"!  which  is  a  Utiae  on  the  chemistry  <>' -*-^-^^'J>;^ 
_    volume  8vo  of  700  page».  w«  nnknown  to  me  when  I  prepared  the  first  pan 
of  this  essay.  ;)^ 


rZ*. 


■laSi* 


lfX'jit.1^  i^i)ii  Mli 


"    ^W*"**,^  '  ^    »  = 


I 


IX.] 


CHEMISTRY  OP  NATDEAL  WATERS. 


; 


123 


case  he  lune  is  separated  as  carbonate,  the  aagnesia  remaîninK 

^r  of  hme),  the  magnesia  is  retaoved  and  tfae  lime  romains 
Hence  carbonate  of  lime  and  silicates  of  magnesia  are  found 
abundanUy  m  nature;  whUe  carbonate  of  magnesia. and  sili- 
cates of  lime  are  produced  only  under  local  and  exceptional 
conditions  It  IS  évident  t^  the  production  fr«m  the  waters 
of  the  early  seas  of  beds  of  sepiolite,  talc,  serpentine,  aad  other 
rocks  m  which  a  magnesian  silicate  abounds,  must,  in  closed 
basins,  hâve  given  rise  to  waters  in  which  chloride  of  calcium 
would  predominate. 

[§  42  of  the  original  paper  contiiins  descriptions  and  anal- 
yses of  eight  waters  of  Class  IL,  the  solid  contents  of  which 

phates.     The  three  given  below,  which  ma/  be  taken  as  exam- 
ples, nse  from  the  Trenton  limestone.of  the  Ottawa  and  St 
Lawrence  valleys,  the  first  being  that  known  as  the  Interniitteni 
bpriûg  of  Caledonia.] 


Waters  of  Class  II. 
Chloride  of  sodium 
^  "         potassium 

"         barium 
"         strontium 
"         calcium 

magnésium 
Bromide  of        " 
lodide  of  " 

Carbonate  of  baryta 
"  strontia 

"  V  lime    . 

magnesia 
"  iron   . 

Silica 
f]P  Alumina 

•  In  1,000 

Spécifie  ,gra' 


Caledonia. 
12.25G0 
.0305 


.2870 

1.0338 

.0238 

.0021 


.1264 
.8632 
traces 
.0225 
tmdet. 


Lanoraie. 

11.1400 
.1460 
.0303 
.0186 
.2420 
.2790 
.0283 
.0052 
.0106 
.0137 
.4520 
.4622 
traces 
.0652 

undet. 


8t.  Léon. 

11.4968 
.1832 
.0019 
.0019 
.0718 
.6636 
.0091 
.0046 


.3493 
.9388 
.0145 
.0865 
.0145 


12.8830        13.8365 
1009.42        1011.23 

=-va8&  ±i4à^tach  iKrfd  from  lèss  thair1Mî.^ïadre  tliàn  lÔ  parts 


^I^grl 


■-Fjii..    .■ 


T- 


Fil  t»  4«'*^«>'4^'^^ïûkk.'^^F^-»  ^  âiÀ 


"A. 


m4 


CHEMIStRY  OF  NATUEA.L  WATER8, 


px. 


of  solidmatter  in  1  làjjillll'-^"""  ^^"^  *°*^^''  "^  ^""^^ 
beloi*,  the-first  rise^ISS^SetMzy  fownation  in  the  Ottawa 
vaUey,  and  the  oQiers  fropi  the-^Utica  and  gudson  Eiver  for- 
mations in  the  vaUey  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  alkaline-saline 
waters  of  Caledopia,  belonging  to  the  saipeclaas,  wh^ch  will  be 
mentioned  furtli^'  on  in  §  47,  rise  ftôm  the  Tr^ntbn  lime-, 
atone  in  the  former  region.J 


.*^. 


^ 


WaterBofClaasIII. 
Chloride  of  sodium 

"         potassium 
Bromide  of  sodium 
lodide  of         "       . 
Phosphate  of  soda 
Carbonate  of    '* 

baryta    . 
strontia 
%î"  lime 

magnesia 
iron    ,    . 


Alumina 
SUica 


0>-^ 


m- 
gravity 


Pitzroy. 

6.5325 

.1160 

.0217 

.0032 

.0124 

.5885 

traces 
<t 

.1500 

-.7860 

'    traces 

.0040 

^  .i330 

^3473 


10.7202 
10^^ 


7.2923 


fi 


■&      ■  K,, 


'^'ir 


■,-t*' 


'■m^ 


,       1006.24 

/^i    °     '         ,.■-■;■■■:■■"        .  >    "^v 

§  iâ^  the  "vraters  !0|  Claw  TV^^é  first  to  t)e  noticed  is  one 

occumBT  at  Ch^hly,*-^  the  Eich^eu  Eîter,  in  the  province 

of  Québec.    Hère,  on  a  pWlJ  oye^  an  ari#5f  ab^it  t^  acres, 

the  clayey  Roil  is  de8ti«pi^>«getation  and  iijSjpregnated  with 

alkalihe"water8.^4ioh  in  the^^dry  season  give  rise  to  a  sajine 

eiBorescence  on^^aiAlly  dried  up  and  fissuied  surface.     A 

weU^^uAk  herë-ITthe  lepth  of  eighf  or  ten  feet  in  the  clay, 

which  overlies  tK^  Hudson  River  formation,  affords  at  aU  times 

an  abundant  snpply  of  water,  which  geueraUy  flows  in  a  little 

stream  from  the  top  of  the  weU.     SmaU  bubbles  of  carburetted 

hydrogen  are  sometimes  seen  to  escape  from  the  water.     The 

température  at  the  bottom  of  the  weU  was  found  in  October, 

_1861.  to  be  53°  F.,  and  in  Augnst,  1865,  to  be  nearly  54°  F. 

The  mean  tempeiatuie  orChambly  can  aifferTMnittle  ironr- 


iN  ... 


r^^fe 


W-^-'  '::^ 


nc] 


CHEMI8TRY  OP  NATURAL  WATERS. 


125 


undet. 


Il 


II 


1.0295 
.0640 
.0908 

uiidet 


.1220 
undet. 


that  of  Montréal,  which  is  44.6o  F.,  so  that  this  is  a  thermal 
water.  Another  alkaUue  and  saline  spring  in  the  aame  Zl 
iaa  ^0  a  température  of  ÔS"  F.     The  water  ôf  the  spring  het 

the  cattJe  of  the  neighborhood.  Thi^e  analyses  hâve  been 
Octeber,  1852  ;  and  the  third  in,Angust,  1864,  during  a  very  dxy 

Waten  ôf  ChamUy,  câa«8  IV. 
Chlonde  of  potassium 
"  sodium     . 

Carbonate       " 

••  lime  .    *  . 

''inagQesia      .     , 
strontia    . 
iron 
Alqmma  and  phosphate 
Silic»      .        .        , 
f  Boi^  iodidçs,  and  bromides 

In^parts 2.1652        2.1322       Tm7 

M.  poreion  of  barium  is  included  with  the  strontium  sait. 
Ihe  water  containa  moreover  a  portion  of  an  organic  acid,  which 
cau^  it  to  assume  a  bright  brown  color  when  reduced  by  evap- 
oration.  Acetic  acid  gave  no  precipitate  with  the  conceil|  '  ' 
and  filtered  water;  but  the  subséquent  addition  of  ace(^t 
copper  yielded  a  brown  precipitate  of  what  was  regaf 
apocrenate  of  copper.  The  organic  matter  of  this  and  of  "many 
other  minerai  springs  bas  prohably  a  superficial  origin.  The 
carbomc  acid  was  determined  in  the  third  analysis,  and  was 
equal  m  two  trials  te  .903  and  .905.  The  neutral  carbonates 
in  thw^water  require  .452  parts  of  carbonic  acid. 

[§§  45,  46,  give  the  analyses  of  six  more  waters  of  Class 
IV.,  none  of  which "^  as  highly  chaiged  with  minerai  sub- 
stances as  that  of  Chambly,  though  holding  from  0.34  to  1.55 
parte  of  solid  matter  te  1,000.  Ail  of  thèse  waters  are  found 
in  the  valleys  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  of  Lake  Champlain, 
wl  am  beheved-to  nao  fe>m  theimcanor  HndsOTrtaveTshalësT 


II. 

.0324 

.8887 

1.0604 

.0380 

■.0766  ; 

.0045 

.0024 

.0063 

.0730 

undet. 


III. 

.0182 
.8^46 
.9820 
.0253 
.0650 
undet. 


.0166 
undet. 


<. 


(-IL-  tï.C.Jti.î.v*^^--*'* 


-%'- 


■;»#; 


126 


CHEMI9TRY  OF  NATUBAL  WATERS. 


px. 


The  analyses  of  the  three  given  below  may  be  taken  as  addi- 
tional  examplea  of  thia  class.  That  of  St.  Ours  ^  wmarkable 
for  a  large  proportion  of  potaaaium-salts,  about  twenty-live  per 
*  cent  of  the  alkaUes,  determined  as  chlorides,  being  chlonde  of 
potassium.] 

W.te«ofCl»MlV.  -fltOm*  Joly 

Chloridêof  sodium 0207  .0347 

'•          potassium ^496  .007» 

Sulphateofpotash  ....        -JOBJ  ^^ 

Carbonateofscda      .  •        '        '     /     .,^40  ..0710 

«  Lgnesia 1287        .«278 

Iron^xide,  alumina,  and  phoephatca      .       traces 
Silica 


Nlcolei. 

.8020 

.0^18 

i;i353 
uodet. 


.0161 


.0110 


In  1,000  parti 


.6311        .8478        1.6591 


To  the  above  may  be  joined,  for  compàrison,  the  analysis 
of  the  waters  of  a  large  river,  the  Ottawa,  which  drains  a 
région  occupied  chiefly  by  crystaUine  rocks,  covered  by  ex- 
tensive  forests  and  marshes.    The  soluble  matters  which  it 
contaius  are  theiefore  derived  in  part  from  the  superficial  de- 
cpniposition  of  thèse  rocks,  a^  in  part  from  the  decaying 
végétation.     The  water,  whiçh  was  taken  at  the  head  of  thô 
St.  Anne's  rapids,  on  the  9th  of  March,  1854,  before  the  melt- 
ing  of  the  winter's  snows  had  begun,  had  a  pale  ambei-yellow 
hue,  from  disèolved  organic  matter,  which  gave  a  dark  brown 
color  to  the  residue  after  evaporation.     The  weight  of  tjiis 
residue  from  10,000  parts,  dried  at  300°  F.,  waa  .6975,  which 
aller  ignition  was  reduced  to  .0340  parts.     As  seen  in  the 
table  below,  gpe  half  of  the  solid  matters  in  this  water  were 
earthy  carbonates,  and  more  than  one  third  was  silica,  so  that 
the  whole  amount  of  salts  of  alkaUne  bases  was  .088  (of  which 
nearly  one  half  is  c&rbonate  of  soda)  ;  whUe  the  St.  Ours  water, 
which  resembles  that  of  the  Ottawa  in  its  alkalme  salts,  con- 
tains  in  the  same  quantity  4.248,  or  more  thaîi  forty-eight 
times  as  much.    The  alkalies  of  the  Ottawa  water  equalled 
as  chlorides  .0900,- of  which  .0293,  or  32.5  per  cent,  were 
chlori^»  "f  r»»-»^«^"mi„  J^e  lesuKs  of  some  observations  on 


"Aj^s^fi'^^ 


.  / 


DLl 


CBEMISTRT  OIT  NATURAL  WATBSS. 


127 


ihe  sihca  «Bd  the  organio  loatters  of  thi»  rive^wate^wm  U 
pven  further  on  (|§  70,  71).  It  will  be  observée!  thiit  wbile 
>he  contents  of  aU  the  other  watew  in  this  paper  are  given  for 
1,000  parte,  those  of  th»  Ottawa  are  ealcukted  for  10,000  parts. 


Water  of  tha  OtUwa  River. 

Chloride  of  potassium      .        . 
Sulphate  of  soda 

"  potassium     .        . 

Carbonate  pf  soda       .        ,        . 

.«me   .        .       ..        . 

"  magnesia 

Inm-oxide,  alumina,  and  phosphates 
Silica         .        .        . 

•  •  •  •. 

In  10,000  parts      .        .        . 


.0169 

mm 

.0122 
.0410 
.2680 
.0«90 
traces 
.2060 

.6116 


§  47.  It  was  an  interesting  question  to  dêtemiiie  whether  the 
composition  of  thèse  varions  wafcers  remaihs  constant.     Havina 
coUected  and  analyzed,  in  September,  1847,  the  waters  of  thiee 
spnngs  m  Cftledonia,  Ontario,  belonging  to  Class  III,  and  not 
fw^^m  the  spring  of  Class  IL  in  thesame  town.  noticed  in 
§42  lagaiû  visited  and  collected  for  examination  the  waters 
of  the  same  springs  in  Januaty,  1865,  afief  a  lapse  of  more 
than  seventeen  yeàrs.     The  resnlts,  when  çompared  as  belôw, 
shpw  that  considérable  changes  hâve  occurred  in  the  compo- 
sition of  each  of  thèse  springs,  and  tend  to  confirm  in  Vn 
■unexpected  manner  the  theoiy  which  I  had  long  befow  put 
forward,-that  the  waters  of  the  second  and  third  classas 
owe  their  origin  to  the  mingling  of  saline  watere  of  the  first 
class.  with  alkaline  watew  of  the  fourth  class.     It  will  be 
oWed-that  the  thre^C^donia  waters  in  1847  were  ail ' 
alkalme,  altVugh  th%ïSpMons  of  carbonate  of  soda  were 
imhke.    Sulphates  w^^h,^  présent  in  aU  of  them,  but  most 
abondant  m  the  Sulphur  SpK%  which,  although  holding  the 
smaUest  amount  of  soUd  mattefs,  was  the  most  alkaline.    In 
January,  1866,  however,  the  first^and  second  of  thèse  waters 
had  ceased  to  be  alkaline,  and  oontained,  instead  of  carbonate 
ot  soda,  small  quantities  of  earthy  chloride,  causing  them  to 
enterjnto Jh£  seeoiid„claM.„ They,  no  loage^^^L 


^/f  'f 


k  /.''  *  -'i^ 


,!l 


?1 


i  iw 


128 


CHEMISTRY  OF  NATTJRAL  WATERS. 


[IX. 


sulphates^  but,  on  the  contrary,  portions  of  baryta  and  stronti^.,. 
Only  the  Sulphur  Spring,  which  in  1847  contained  the  largest 
proportion  of  carbonate  of  soda  and  of  sulphates,  still  ret^ined 
thèse  éléments,  though  in  diminished  amounts,  and  "v^as  feebly 
impregnated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  If  we  suppose  thèse 
waters  to  arise  from  the  commingling  of  saline  waters  of  the 
first  or  second  class,  like  those  of  Whitby  and  Lanoraie,  con- 
taining  earthy  chlorides  and  salts  of  baryta  and  strontia,  with 
a  water  of  the  fourth  class  holding  carbonàtp  andLgulphate.6f 
soda,  it  is  évident  that  a  sufl&cient  quantity  of  AraHatter  water 
would  décompose  the  earthy  cMorides  and  precipitate  the  saïtS 
of  baryta  and  strontia  présent,  whUe  an  excesg  wblild^give  use 
to  alkaline-saline  Watters  containing  suïphate  and  carbonate -of 
soda,  such  as  were  the  three  springs  of  Caledonia  in  1847. 
A  faUing  off  in  the  supply  of  the  sulphated  attlftline  water 
may  be  supposed  to  hâve  taken  place,  and  the  resuit  is  seeii 
in  the  appearance  of  chloride  of  mîagnesium  and  of  baryta  and 
strontia  in  two  of  fW  sp^rings,  and  iffti  diininished  .proportion 
of  carbonate  of  soda  in  the  Sulphur  Spring.* 

Thèse  later  analyses  being  dirècted  chiefly  to  the  détermina- 
tion of  thèse  changes,  e*  attempt  was  made  ^détermine  potas- 
sium, iodine,  or  bromkie.  For  tfeô  pu^ôses  of  comparison, 
the  two  séries  of  analysest  are  h«|  put  in  jiPktaposition  ;  the 
élément  just  mentioned  being  inluded  with  the  chloride  of 
sodium,  and  the  figures  reduced  to  three  places  of  décimais. 
The  precipitate  by  a  solution  of  gypsum  from  the  concentratecl» 
and  acidulated  water  was  regarded  as  8ulpha,te  of  strontia,  and 
calculated  as  such,  but  was  in  part  suïphate  of  baryta.  ^ 

•     .,  ■      '       '  ■■•' 

•  [The  Harrowgàte  springs,  in  England,  hâve  undergone  changes  not  un- 
like  those  qt  Caledonia.  Severol  of  the  H«rro^N{gftte  iva^rs,  ail  of  which  wère 
frfttnd  liy  Dr.  Hofman,  in  1854,  to  contain  suïphate  of  lime,  w*e  examined  by 
Mr.  Davis,  in  18^,"  and  found,  with  one  exception,  to  be  free  from  sulphatè, 
and  t<J  contain  instéad  salts  of  baryta,  even  in  the  sulphuretted  waters.  Great 
différences  are  the|B,  as-elsewh^,  observed  between  closelynkyacent  springs; 
and  in  one  of  them,  a  strong  salifie  holding  chloride' of  bariutn,  Dr.  Muspratt 
detected  a  small  amount  of  protochloride  of  iron.  fRieinical  News,  Vol  XIII., 
passim:)]  .  '  ,  '-"' 

'  +•  [Thè  complète  earlier  analyses  are  given  ii>  ih^^i^fi  paper.]      , 


* 


r 


»« 

*1i 

• 

' 

4  S 

, 

N 

y  . 

" 

't 

t 

\. 

4 


^  *  • 


y- 


.  '.'  i 


»ï 


EL] 


CHEMISTRT  OP  NATURAL  WATERS. 
Tabfe  ahmingOu  CJuinges  in  the  Caledonia  Spnngs. 


129 


f^- 


Chlor.  sodium 
"    magnésium 

Sulpb.  potash     . 

Carb.  soda 
"     lime 
"     magnesia 
"     strontia    . 

Siiica     .        . 


19  l.ttOO  parts 


Ofts  S^g  waa  tod  to  equal,  for  1,000  parts,  .671  ;  of  which 
.278  y^  reqmred  fo,,  the  neutral  carbonates.  The  Saline 
Spnngr  codtau,ed  .-664  of  carbonic  acid  ;  of  which  .290  go  ïo 
make  up  the  nedtral  carbonates.     The  Sulphur  Spring,  in  like 

-         £  rûi  ed  f '  f       Tr^  '"  «'^«««^ J,««rbonic  acid  above 
'         n      whT  th«        1  ^"^""^r'"  ^''^  th*rbonated  b^es  p,es- 
a  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  ineufficient  for  the  formation  of  hi 
carbonates  with  thèse  bases.     The  questions  o  The  I  «  of 

,î  34.  are  distinguishk  by  the  présence,  of^^phatfes  •  the  fo^ 
'  ISh  v^l2    ^.""'^Ç^  ^^r"'  '^  «"^P^"^*^  a«a,.a«ociated 


diuninE,  and  Wn.    ApartVrém  the  sfirin^ 


of 


■^ 


/,• 


AÏ 


^^  ■-§ 


*t 


«j..ai  ..;,Vi  ,j  .:■!-:.  ..'é'-:^'  '*  ■ 


130 


CHEMISTEY  OF  NATURAL  WATERS. 


px. 


this  kind  which  occiir  in  régions  where  volcanic  agencies  are 
evidently  active,  the  only  ones  hitherto  studied  are  those  of 
New  York  and  western  Canada,  which  issue  from  almost 
horizontal  Silurian  rocks  (§31).  The  first  account  of  thèse 
remarkable  watfets  was  given  in  the  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.  in  1829 
(VoL  XV.  p.  238),  by  the  late  Professor  Eaton,  who  dcscribed 
two  acid  springs  in  Byron,  Genesee  ('ounty,  N.  Y.  ;  one  yield- 
ing  a  stream  of  distinctly  acid  water  sulficient  to  turn  a  mill- 
wheel,  and  the  other  atfording  in  smaller  quantities  a  much 
more  acid  water,  The  latter  was  afterwards  examined  by  Dr. 
I,ewis  Beck  (Mineralo(^  of  New  York,  p.  150).  He  found  it 
to  be  colorless,  transparent,  and  intensely  acid,  with  a  spécifie 
gravity  of  1.113;  which  corresponds  to  a  solution  holding 
seventeen  per  cent  of  oil  of  vitrioL  No  chlorides,  and  only 
ttaces  of  hme  and  iron,  were  found  in  this  water,  which  was 
nearly  pure  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  Professor  Hall  (Geology  of 
New  York,  4th  District,  p.  134)  bas  noticed,  in  addition  to 
thèse,  several  other  springs  and  wells  of  acid  watér  in  the 
adjacent  town  of  Bergen.  Farther  westward,  in  the  town  of 
Alabama,  is  a  similar  water,  whose  analysis  by  Emi  aài  Craw 
'."ill  be  found  in  th«  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.  (2),  IX.  450.  It  con- 
tained  in  1,000  parts  about  2.5  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  4.6  parts 
of  sulphates,  chiefly  of  lime,  magnesia,  iron,  and  alumina.  Ip 
this,  as  in  the  succeeding  analyses,  hydrated  sulphuric  acid, 
SO„HO,  is  meant. 

The  earliest  quantitative  analyses  of  any  of  thèse  waters 
were  those  by  Groft  and  liyself  of  a  spring  at  Tuscarora,  in 
1845  and  1847,  of  which  the  detailed  results  appear  in  thé 
Amer.  Jour.  Sci.  (2),  VIII.  364.  This,  at  the  time  of  my 
analysis  in  September,  1^847,  contained,  in  1,000  parts,  4.29  of 
Bulphurii(?acid,  and  only  1.87  of  sulphates  ;  while  the  iJrevious 
analysis  by  Profesgor  Croft  gave  approximatively  3.00  ëf  neutral 
sulphates,  and  only  about  1.37  of  sulphuric  acid.  Similar 
acid  waters  occur  on  Grand  Island  above  Niagara  Falls  and  at 
ChippewÎEL  ,  ' 

AU  of  thèse  springs,  along  a  line.of  more  than  100  miles 


O^ 


,  -f< 


■  * 


•^\ 


,  t 


•   IX.]  CHEMISTRY  OF  NATURAL  WATERS.  131 

group  ;  but  in  the  township  of  Niagara,  not  far  from  Oueenston 

a  small  basin  m  yellow  clay,  which,  at  a  depth  of  thLTfour 
feet,  xs  underkxd  by  red  and  green  sandsLes.     The  watr 
which,  hke  those  of  Tùscarora  and  Chippewa,  is  sli^htlv   1 
pregnated   with  sulphuretted  hydrogen  TTl,  f  '^'^^"^V 
agitation  from  the  escape  of  inflImmS  1    t  ^"^^'^^^^ 

1,000  partaaboutwo  u,  of  fr.:::zrj  ::^X:^ 

Uctober,  1849,  and  at  that  time  another  half-dried-up  pool  in 
the  vicinity  contamed  a  etill  more  acid  water.     Anothér  dm  llr  ' 

the  Lf  '     T  "''  fl""^""^  '^'  thermomete.^  in  the  mud  at 
the  bottom  of  one  of  thèse  it  rose  to  60.6° 

§49.  It  appears  from  a  comparison  of  '  thè~  analysîs  of  Croft 
wxth  ûiy  own  that  the  waters  of  the  ^icaroça  «prfng  und^^ 
^nt  a  cahsiderable  change  in  eomposition  iu^he  s'pace  of  to 
^VB  ;  the  proportion  of  the  ba«es  to  the  àcàd  at  the  time  of 
tl^e  spcond  analysis  being  littlé  more  than  one  third^f  that  in 
the  analysifof  Croft.     This  change  was  indeed  to  be  expected 
smce  waters  ofthis  kind  must  soon  remove  l^e  soluble  œr^. 
u  nts  from  the  rocks  throngh  which  they  flow,  and  eventSily 
become  hke  the  water  from  Byron,  little  more  than  a  solution 
of  sulphunc  acid.     The  observations  of  Eaton  at  Byron,  Z 
my  own  at  Tuscarora,  show  that  hdf^ecayed   ti^^es  are   stUl 
^tendmg  on  the  soi!  Which  is  now  so  i^p^egnated  with  ^ 
waters  ^  to  be  unfit  to  support  végétation,     ^oning  from 
the  changes  in  composition,  it  may  be  suppoged  that^hese      i 


■^m 


lil 


thnti^snomerly  lad  to  ascï^ 


■    H-: 


'i!t 


l/f-rr-"  >• 


*  ^T^j- , 


-  \ 


132 


CHEMISTRY  OF  ^ATURAL  T^ATERÇ. 


px. 


to  tUe  action  of  thèse  waters  the  formation  of  some  of  th© 
.masses  of  gypsum  whicli  appear  along  the  outcrop  of  the  Onom- 
'  *'daga  salt-group  (Amer.  Jovir.'Sci.  (2),  VII.  175).  That  watera 
like  tho^e  just  mentioned  must  give  rise  to  snlphate  of  lime  by 
their  action  on  calcareous  roeks  is  évident  ;  and  some  of  the 
deposits  of  gypsum  in  this  région,  as  described  by  good  observ- 
ers,  wouldi  appear  to  be  thus  formedi  So  far,  however,  as  my 
Personal  observations  of  the  gypsums  of  western  Canada  hâve 
extended,  thèse  appea?  to  be  in  ail  cases  contemporaneous  with 
the  shales  and  dolomites  with  whièh  they  are  interstratified, 
aAd  to  hâve  no  connection  with  the  sulphuric-acid  springs 
which  are  so  common  throughout  thaf  région.  (Ibid.  (2), 
XXy^III.  365  ;  and  Geology  of  Cafiada,  352.) 

§  50.  We  hâve  included  in  a  sixth^  dass  the  varions  neutral 
saline  waters  in  which  ^ulphates  predominate,  sometimes  to 
the  exclusion  of  chlorides.  The  base»  of  thèse  waters  are 
soda,  potash,  lime,  and  magnesia  which  are  usuaJly  found 
together,  though  in  yatying  proportions.  For  the  better  under- 
standing'  of  the  relations  of  thèse  sulphated  waters,-  it  may  be 
well  to  recapitulate  Mrhat  bas  been  said  about  their  origin  ; 
and  to  consider  thom,  from  this  point  of  view,  under  two 
heads.  v"^, 

First,  those  fer^èd  from  the  "solution  of  neutral  sulphates 
previously  e^^ing  in  a  soiid  form  in  the  earth.  Strata  en- 
closing  natuwf^î'^deposita  of  sulphates  of  soda  and  magnesia, 
sometimes  with  sulphate  of  potash  (§§17,  19),  afîord  tho 
most  obvious  source  of  thèse  waters.  The  fréquent  occurrence 
of  gypsufti,-  however,  points  to  this  .sait  as  a  more  abundant 
source  of  sulphated  waters.  Solutions  of  gypsum  may  in  somo 
case  exchange  their  lime  for  the  soda  of  insoluble  silicates,  or 
this  sait  may  be.decomposed  by  solutions  of  carbonate  of  soda 
(§§7,  19).  The  décomposition  of  the  suîphate  of  lime  by 
hydrous  carbonate  of  magnesia,  as  explained  in§  21,  is  doubt- 
less  in  many  cases  the  source  of  suîphate  of  magnesia,  which, 
xûore  frequently  than  suîphate  of  soda,  is  a  prédominant  élément 
iii  minerai  waters.  In  connection  with  a  aug^feôtion  made  in 
thff  PFrtinn  Ifflflt  fiitedi  i*-  "^»y  ^  remarkftd' that  T  havft  fiincie 


p 


J-î-v— '■ 


>  .  jft  "• 


,Mi   '     '  ^.i>       'î^^^'-,.Jl^^  t^â».^.*UuiM^A,t,«.\  fli...- 


.■fT^-aÇ^lf 


^3~ 


*' 


K.]  CHEMISTRY  OF  NATUEAL  WATERS.  I33 

found  that  preçlazzite,  in  virtue  of  the  hvrlr^fo     f 

■    ^""'^  ™  §  *7,  by  their  action  upon  calcar^nno  ««^ 

sian  rocks,  or  by  the  intervention  of  c^rb^rof  11   ^""^" 

procesaes  are  evidently  mbiJ  JZ^^^-^A^-^^^ 

i-Mch  aUo  po^,  3dpiaC^  of  tjt'/::^' 
S  tw""  t  "^'"""''  '"'^  °°»'"  *«  -niions  Zm 

«  oM^  .LJ2    r  *»W4m  wKct.i,  f„„„d  in  ^t. 

improtbiethaiïw  TlT.'^''«"°P-     "  *»•  l**»™,   not 

-£T48   It'^tlf  """°°"*"'«'  ""■*  ■^-"nd  i^  ihi, 
p   »[9  *o;  may,  by  thcir  neutiMization  rive  n-nn  ¥^  a-    -i 

«S  o?.;:;LT"",f  "''/="'"'  und.ro:^dertior£ 

Mol-  ky  me  of  L  A    ,  i'  «  "^^  "^  "  «"«niina- 


l4 


.4  .  'rf  . 


^  .,   f 


.^ 


■s 


:êf'"i 


134  CHEMISTRY  OF  NATURAL  WATEKS.  [IX.  „ 

phiir  spring  which  issues  from  a  mound  of  calcareous  tufa  in 
Brant,  in  Ontario,  overlying  the  Corniferoiis  limestoneAis  dis- 
tinguished  by  the  absence  of  any  trace  of  chlorides  ;  in  which 
respect  it  resembles  the  acid  w^ters  of  the  fifth  çlass  from  tl^ô 
adjacent  région.  A  partial  aualysia  of  a  portion  of  it  coUected 
in  1861  gave,  for  1,000  parts,  sulphate  of  lime  1.240,  sdlphate 
of  magnesia  .207,  and  carbonate  of  lime  ,198.  '.from  a  slight 
excess  in  the  amount  of  sulphurîc  acid,  it  is  probable  that  a 
little  sulphate  of  soda  was  also  présent. 

Of  watera  df  this  class,  in  which  «ulphate  of  magnesia  pré- 
dominâtes, but  few^have  yet  been  observed  in  this  country. 
A  remarkable  example  of  this  kind,  from  Hamilton,  Ontario, 
was  examined  by  Professer  Croft,  of  Toronto,  and  described 
by  him  in  the  Canadian  Journal  for  1853  (page  153).  It 
had  a  spécifie  gravity  of  1006.4,  and  gave,  for  1,000  parts,  — 

Chloride  of  sodium  ....••  -5098 

Sulphate  of  soda       .        .        .        •         •        •  1.6985 

lime 11246 

'*           magnesia         .        .        .        .        •  4.7799 

8.1128 

The  rocks  exposed  at  Hamilton  include  the  Médina  sand- 
stone  and  the  Niagara  limestone,  with  the  intermediate  Clin- 
ton group.  Along  the  outcrop  of  the  latter,  crystalline  cnists 
pf  nearly  pure  sulphate  of  magnesia  are  observed  to  form  in 
many  locahties,  during  the  dry  season  of  the  year.  (Geology 
of  Canada,  460.) 


^ 


.;.    « 


v> 


:ëA' 


Bk'r  f 


,fv  :^.--  ^'t:-!.-'-  r*'y~V  "" 


*îtï^>.-'r!'.T.-^,v"n,r^^>;5-,i3g' 


IX-l       ^  CHEMISTBY  OF  NATUEAL  WATEES.  l35 


IIL 

,  4i>  Chemical  and  Geologioal  Considérations. 

Contents  op  Sections.  -52.  Salts  of'alkaline  metàls;  proportion  and  sourees 
oi-potash  ;  53.  Potassium  ind  sodium  in  the'  primitive  sea  ;  64.  Salts  of 
lime  aiid"magnesiaî  relations  of  chlorides  and  carbonates;  55.  Solubilitv 
of  earthy  carbonates  ;  56.  Supersaturated  solutions  of  carbonates  of  lime 
and  magnesia  ;  67.-  Salts  of  barium  and  strontium;  solution  of  their  sul- 
l)hatesr|5*  Iron,,  manganèse,  alumina,  and  phosphates;  59.  Bromides 
and  lodideirithe  small  portion  of  tromine  and„the  excess  of  iodine  iii 
saillie  spHngs  ak  compared  with  the  modem  oceau;  60.  Probable  r»*lation 
of  lodides  to  sédiments;  61.  SulpHiites,  their  élimination  from  w^^s- 
W.  Water  holding  a  soluble  sulphuret  ;  63.  Borates,  their  détection- 
64.  Ajialysis  of  a  borax-water  from  Calil9mia  ;  65.  Carbonates,  tlfeir 
amount  m  the  Caledonia  waters  ;  66.  Intervention  of  n\utral  carbonate 
of  soda  ;  67.  Deflciency  of  carbonic  acid  in  waters  ;  68.  Inactions  of  vari- 
ons waters;  69.  Silica,it8  source  and  its  proportion;  70.  Its  conditions, • 
formation  of  silicates  ;  7l.  Organic  matters  ;  72.  Geological  position^/ 
the  waters  hère  desoribed  ;  73.  Succession  of  palœozoic  stra^a  ;  iftho- 
logical  relations  of  successive  formations  ;  74.  Québec  group.  its  waters  • 
75.  Sources  of  varions  classes  of  waters  ;  76.  Their  relation  to  the  fonna- 
tions;  77.  Associations  of  unlike  waters  ;  changes  in  constitution  •  7/ 
Température  of  springs  ;  thermal  waters  ;  79.  Geological  interest  bf  the 
above  analyses  ;  possible  résulta  «f  thè  evaporation  of  thèse  springs. 

É§  52.  Salts  op  the  Alkaline  Metals.— Thèse  salts  abound 
most  saline  waters,  and,  except  in  the  few  cases  in  which 
phate  of  magnesia  prevails,  form  a  large  part  of  the  solublo 
tters  présent.  Tly  salts  of  sodium  are  by  far  the  most  abun- 
dant,  and  the  proportion  of  potassium-salt  is  generaUy  small. 
The  chloride  of  pobassiun»  in  modem  sea-water  constitutes  three 
or  jour  hundredths.-of  the  alkaline  chlorides,  while  in  the  brines 
from  old  rocks,  ^  in  saUne  waters  of  the  first  two  classes 
ahke  from  Germàny,  England,  the  United  States,  and  Canada, 
its  proportion  iis  much  lessj  sometimes  amounting  to  traces  only. 
In  the  waters  of  Classes  ÏII.  and  IV.,  where  alkaline  carbon- 
ate» appear,  and  even  predominate,  the  proportion  of  potassium- 
salt  becomes  greaiw.  Thus  of  the  waters  of  the  latter  clasa 
(§  45),  thè  alkalieg  of  the  Nicolet  spring  calculated  as  chlorides 
contain  1.89  pe*  cent  of  chloride  of  potassium,  and  those  of 
the  Jacques-Cartier  2.98  ;  while  for  th«  St.  Onr«  npring  thfl^ 


•  p: 


v^-^" 


.r";J 


■'H^- 


\ 


136 


CHEMI8TRY  OF  NATURAL .  t^ATERS. 


PX. 


■^ 


chloride  of  potassium  is  equal  to  not  less  than  25.0  per  cent. 
There  does  uot,  however,  àppear  to  be  any  relation  betweeii 
the  proportion  of  alkaline  carbonate  and  that  o^/potassiuin, 
since  the  salts  from  the  waters  first  named  are  môre  alkaline 
than  those  of  St.  Ours  ;  while  those  of  the  alkaline  water  of 
Joly  contain  less  than  one  pet  cent  of  potassic  chloride. 

The  amount  of  this  sait  obtained^  from  the  water  of  the 
Ottawa  liiver  is  worthy  of  notice,  being  equal  to  not  less  than 
32.0  per.  cent  of  the  alkaline  chlorides,  while  in  the  waters  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  it  amounts  to  16.0  pei^cent.*     A  large  pro- 
portion of  potassium  relat^vely  to  the  sodium  bas  already  been 
observed  in  the  case  of  many  ordinary  river  and  spring  waters 
and  this  is  readily  exiilained  when  we  consider  the  extent  to 
which  potash  is  set  free  by  the  décomposition  of  both  végétal 
and  minerai  matterà  at  the  earth's  surface.     The  process  by 
which  this  base  is  eliminated  in  ^Itering  throiigh  soils  haa 
akeady  been  explained  in  §  5.     TheN  occasional  présence  of 
considérable  amounts  'of  potash  in  siilphated  minerai  waters 
(Lersch,  Hydro-chemie,  page  346)  is,  explained  by  the  poweV 
of  solutions  of  gypsum  to  set  free  this  alkali  from  soils  (§  7)\ 
and  also  probably  in  some  cases  by  thé  dissolution  of  double 
potassic  salts  like  polyhallite.  ^trata  holding  glauconite,  which 
occurs  alike  in  paiaeozoic  andntore  récent  formations,  t  m»y  also 
be  conceived  to  yield  potash-salts  to  infiltrating  waters.    j/^^"^ 

§  53.   It  will   be  seen  that  the  waters  above  riotîced,  in  \ 
which  the  proportion  of  the  potash  to  the  soda  is  l^rge   ate 
but  feebly  Saline,  so  thàt  the  mal  amount  of  potassium  is  in 
no  case   great.     The  faèfc.of  especial  importance  as  regards 
the  alkaline  metals  in  the  wwiera  whose  analyses  we  hâve  given 


>  •  See  London,  BdJnbtBgh  and  Dnblin  Phil.  Mag.  (4),  Xin.  289,  and  Geof- 
ogy  of  Canada,  page  565,  whero  analyses  of  both  of  thèse  waters  may  be 
found. 

+  For  a  notice,  wifti  «riyseji  bytlje  author,  of  a  green  hydratai  sflicate 
'  of  alnmina,  iron  and  potash,  allled  trr  glauconite,  from  the  paiœozoic  rocks 
of  Canada  and  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  see  the  Geology  of  Canada,  pages 
487,  488?  where  also  will  i»  fonnd  an  analysis  by  the  author  of  the  glatiqpnite 
from  the  cretaceous  forpitiûto  of  New  Jersey.  See  also  Ainer.  Jour.  Science 
(2),  XXX.  277.      . 


•^ 


-r-j- 


■  ^ 


"N 


'  Mi  .é-uM--  i 


î  ■" 


1*] 


CHEMISTRY^OP  N^TURAL  WATERS. 


isr 


we  conceive  to  be  mo,^  0^1.^1  H    ^"   *^'''  '■^^^'  ^^^^^ 

of  the  ancient  ooean     To  Xs  ^  ^  ^r"''^  ^^"^  "^«  ^«te'- 

.         of  potassium,  the  Process  of  min^"T'I      ''"'  '^^"«*  ^^««t»t« 

-    adding  potash-saltT,  and    dea^e 'fh         'J^  '^^'^  ^"^  ««- 

'       thesS  ty  végétation  (S  5)  and  bv  th    .  ^'^''^  «li"^ination  of 

-  find  a  notable  ptlp^t  o/ptltT^  '' f'^'^'^'''' 
modem  océan  ^        ■  "^  *^'«  matera  of  the 

of  Varennes.     Most  o^Te  «'  af  1         ^'*''*''^  '"  *^^  ^^'^^ 

cori^under  this  htd  the      1  ,^^^«^^^«'^M.  -  We  hâve  to 

and  trWonaJ.!^"!  Xt^^^^^^^^^  "'«  ^^^-^- 

._     of  the  flrst  class,  although  Itïïl.  ^^      ""  "^"^  "'^^.^'^ 

rides  of  calcium  and  nLn^h  7    ^  ^''^'  ^""'^""'^^  «f  «Wo- 

allx  destituée  of  earthrXi  IClLttT^"'  ^^"^^-  " 
.     found  m  smaU  quantities  in  t\.^    ii   vW^'  however,  are 

fonned  by  admLSks  Jtlît     ,  "  ^"*^  *'^  «PParently 

Besides  the  ca^ona^e^  of  iteTnd       "  ^""''"^^  "^«"*-"«^ 
of  the  fourth  cil  hc^d  T'  ^t  ""'^r^  ^^^'^^  *^«  -«^rs 
which  they  contTn  ^v^  ^tv  t' ^V"^'°°"*«  «^  «^*     >^ 
rides  of  calcium  and  ^?  ^'  ^        ^*'*'°"  ^^^  *he  chlo- 

the  carbonaÏ^f  Ïese"rr^l^"t£°^^^  ^' 

Kingston  (described   in  fï       •       ,^      '**^'  '^l'"^  ^at«i«  «f 

andtheae.ateJ:lTof^^r^^::^|Pfy-r^^^^^^^      ,' 
ond  class.  r*®^*^  ^'^"i  the  first  to  the  sec- 

cWorid,  orteil'  .„d        'îr'*'.  ■^°'  '  ™''!^»™t  -of 


■  /  ï> 


\ 


y 


»•■ 


^        • 


/ 


v/ 


•î;'':^ 


,'•■***■*• 


rT 


m 


ïïT'^ 


4»! 


138 


CHEMISTRY  OF  NATURAL  WATER3. 


nx. 


rine  and  the  carbonic  acid  that  chloride  of  c&loium,  chloride  of 
magnésium,  bicarbonate  of  lime,  and  bicarbonate  of  magnesia 
coexistv  When  such  a  solution  is  submitted  to  evaporatiun 
at  ordinary  températures,  provided  there  is  présent  a  sufficient 
amount  of  chloride  of  calcium,  carbonate  of  lime  aloue  is  de- 
posited,  and  chloride  of  magnésium  remains  in  solution.  In 
case  the  chloride  of  calcium  is  insuffioient,  the  lime  is  still  tirst 
deposited  as  carbonate,  and  the  more  soluble  magnesian  car- 
bonate is  precipitated  by  further  evaporation.  When,  how- 
ever,  such  a  water  is  boiled,  ^  reverse  process  takes  place,  — 
the  carbonate  of  lime  slowly  décomposes  the  magnesian  chlo- 
ride, and  carbonate  pf  magnesia  is  deposited,  while  chloride 
of  calcium  ]:«mains  in  solution.  Hence  if  the  amount  of  chlo- 
ode  of  magnésium  be  great  enough,  and  the  ebulUtion  suffi- 
tly  prolonged,  the  precipitate  will  at  length  coutain  only 
onate  of  magnesia  ;  while  an  équivalent  of  chloride  of  cal- 
,  now  found  in  the  solution,  represents  the  carbonate  of 
which  the  analysis  of  the  precipitate  at  an  earlier  stage 
'f  "the  ebiUlition  would  bave  furnished.  I 

As  an  example  of  this  may  be  cited  the  analysis  of  a  water 
of  Class  II.  from  Ste.  Geneviève,  where  the  precipitate,  after 
a  few  minutes'  boiling,  contained  carbonates  of  lime  and  mag- 
nesia in  the  proportion  12  :  750.  When,  however,  another 
portion  was  boiled  down  to  one  sixth,  the  precipitate  was 
found  to  be  pure  "barbonate  of  magnesia.  '  The  water  of  another 
spring  of  the  sape  class,  that  of  Plantagenet,  [described  in  the 
original  paper,]  gave  as  the  resuit  of  ebuUition  a  precipitate 
of  .8904  of  carbonate  of  magnesia  and  .0330  of  carbonate  of 
lime  ;  while  the  liquid  retained  a  portion  of  lime  equal  to  .1 364 
of  chloride  of  calcium,  besides  .2452  of  clJoride  of  magnesiuln, 
in  1,000  parts.  When,  howeyer,  this  water  is  left  to  spon- 
taneous  evaporation,  the  whole  of  the  lime  séparâtes  as  carbon- 
ate, and  the  liquid  remains  for  iii  time  oharged  with  carbonate 
of  magnesia,  probably  as  sesqui-carbonate.  This  so^lution  is, 
however,  after  a  time  spontaneously  decomposed  even  in  closed 
vessels,  With  déposition  of  a  portion  of  crystalline  hydrated 
carbonate"  of  magnesia  ;  another  portion  remains  in  solution, 


r  \r^t^'*)^:^h 


-''^.mn-' 


139 


ii^  \ 


IX.]  CHEMISTEY  OF  NATDRAL  WATERS.        ^ 

together  with  chloride  of  maeneainTn    K,.f  •  •  • 

and  iB  accordi.g  to  fiin.au.  equal  to  1  :  30.000  or  1    50  000  J 

omis      ?  "f  •  *''"''^"'  •^"I"'^^  *«  fi"^  that  wa  er  S 
chlonde  of  calcium  in  solution  would  vield   hv  hJv  ^ 

Ta  t  llTl^        ''!"^"  *""^P^""*  ««^"«-«  holding  C 
this.   however.  the  greater  part  wa«  deposited   after  Twentv 
wnai  leps  than  l.Q  gramme,  in  the  form  of  bicarbonaf^      p 


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.Sciences 
Corpûranon 


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JijifAféiiif 


140 


CHEMISTRY  OF  NATX7RAL  WATERSi 


(IX. 


water  with  carbônic  acid,  solutions  were  obtained  tolding  in  a*^ 
litre  2.3  grammes  of  carbonate  of  lime  ;  of  which  one  half  was 
soon  deposited,  even  when  tise  solution  was  kept  under  a 
pressitçpi  oÇ*  several  atmosphères.  It  would  thus  seem  that 
saline  liquids  favor  this  temporary  solubility  of  the  carbonate 
of  lime  as  bicarbonates. 

In  ail  of  the  above  experiments  an  excess  of  carbonic  acid 
was  présent,  but  this  I  hâve  since  found  is  not  essential,  since 
supersaturated  solutions  may  be  obtained  holding  as  much  as 
1.2  grammes  of  carbonate  of  lime,  together  with  sulphate  of 
magnésium  and  chloride  of  calcium,  m  a  litre  of  water,  without 
any  excess  of  carbonic  fecid.  The  power  of  alkalirie  chlorides 
and  of  chloride  of  calcium  to  prevent  the  précipitation  of  chlo- 
ride of  calcium  by  carbonate  of  soda  bas  alreadj^been  observed 
by  Storer  (Dictionary  of  Solubilities,  page  110).  I  bave  found 
that  thp  precipitate  produced  by  the  admixture  of  solutions  of 
thèse  two  salts  is  readily  dissolved,  when  'récent,  by  a  solution 
of  chloride  of  calcium  or  of  sulphate  of  magijesia  ;  and  thus 
liquids  may  be  prepared  holding  at  the  same  time  from  KO  to 
1.2  grammes  of  neutral  carbonate  of  lime  and  1.0  of  neutral  car- 
bonate of  magnesia,  in  présence  of  sulphate  of  magnesia.  Thèse 
solutions  of  carbonate  of  lime,  which  are  strongly  alkaline,  may 
be  kept  for  twelve  hours  or  more  without  perceptible  change 
at  ordinary  températures,  but  after  a  time  deposit  crystals  of 
hydrated  carbonate  of  lime.  The  addition  of  alcohol  imme- 
diately  throws  down  the  whole  of  the  carbonate  of  lime  in  an 
amorphous  condition. 

The  carbonate  of  magnesia  is  still  more  soluble  than  the 
carbonate  of  lime  under  similar  conditions,  and  it  is  possiblç  to 
obtain  5.0  grammes  of  neutral  carbonate  of  magnesia  dissolved 
in  a  litre  of  water  holding  seven  per  cent  of  hydrated  sulphate 
of  magnesia,  without  any  excess  of  carbonic  acid.  Thèse  sor- 
tions, which  are  strongly  alkaline  to  test-papers,  yield  a  precipi- 
tate by  beat,  which  redissolves  on  cooling.  • 

It  is  évident  that  the  mingling  of  saline  and  alkaline  waters 
may  give  rise  to  solutions  like  those  just  described,  and  thus 
explain  apparent  anomalies  in  the  composition  of  certain  saline^ 


k' 


IX.] 


CHEMiSTKY  Oï  NATVRAL   WATERS. 


141 


waters.    See  also  in  this  connection  the  observation»  of  Tî- 

§57     SaLTS    OP    BaRIUM    and    STBONTIUM.l^The    «ait,    nf 

thèse  two  bases  are  found  in  verv  manv  of  J^^"^^^  °^ 
alkaline  watera  of  Canada      Th  T^        *^®  ^^"'^  ^^^ 

The  inaolubUity  of  ita  sulphate  musl  hâve  excluded  l»r- 

modeof  ito  solution  U  »e  .07  •  ,î  *°  ""^  ?'"'»•>''' 
duction  by  organic  nattl  t  17'  ""°"«''  "»  P"™»»  «^ 
(§  10),  ATi  CTr^  /°™  f  '  ""»'"»  "'P""-* 
l«riuaL  -In  thiamv  "  '°^  ""'*>™"°  "  Floride  of 

1^^^^^       ^  r  .g  _J^Z^J^  strontia  aa  weU  as 


.n 


\ 


142 


CHEMISTRY  OF  NATUEAL  WATERS. 


[IX. 


§  58.  Ibon,  Manganèse,  Alumina,  and  Phosphates. — None 
of  the  watera  of  the  four  classes  Jiére  described  contain  any 
notable  quantity  of  iron,  yet  this  élément  is  never  wanting  in 
those  watera  which  contain  earthy  carbonates.  Whenever  a 
portion  of  one  of  thèse  watera,  or  better  the  earthy  precipitate 
separated  from  it  by  boiling,  is  evapbratejl  to  dryness  with  an 
excess  of  hydrochloric  acid,  the  residue  treated  with  acidulated 
water  yields  a  portion  of  silica,  and  the  solution  will  then  be 
found  to  yield-with  animonia  a  precipitate.  This,  which  is 
partialîy  solublo  in  caustic  alkalies,  is  often  colorless,  and  will» 
be  found  to  consist  of  alumina  and  peroxide  of  iron,  with  phos- 
phoric  acid  and  a  trace  of  manganèse,  which  latter  métal  is 
seldom  or  never  absent.  The  small  quantity  of  alumina  which 
thèse  watera  contain  appeara  not  to  be  derived  from  suspended 
argillaceous  mattere,  but  to  be  held  in  a  state  of^  solution* 
The  phosphates  are  generalFy  présent  only  in  very  small  quan- 
tities  in  thèse  iwatere,  for  the  reason  pointed  out  iii  §  5.  The 
largest  amount  which  I  hâve  met  with  WM^^an  alkahno 
water  QÎ  Class  IIL  from  Fitzroy  (§  43),  ^i^flH^^  ^qual  to 
.0124  of  tribasic  phosphate  of  soda  in  1,000'PRrof  water. 

§  59.  Bbomides  and  Iodides.  —  The  chlorides  in  thèse  an- 
cieut  minerai  watera  are  always  accompan^ed  by  bromides  and 
iodides,  but  tlfie  proportion  of  ti^e  bromides  to  the  chlorides 
appeara  to  be  much  less  than  in  the  watera  of  the  modem 
seas.  According  to  Usiglio,  100  parts  of  the  salts  from  the 
Mediterranean  contain  1.48  of  bromide  of  sodium;  while  ten 
analyses  by  Von  Bibra  of  the  watera  of  différent  océans  give 
from  0.86  to  1,46,  affording  for  100  parts  of  salts  a  me^n  of 
1.16  of  bromide  of  sodium,  equal  to  1.04  parts  of  bromide 
of  magnésium.  The  watera  of  Whitby  and  Hallowell,  on  the 
contrary,  which  are  the  richest  in  bromides  of  those  described 
in  this  paper,  contain  only  0.54  and  0.69  parts  of  bromide  of 
sodium  in  100  parts  of  solid  mattera  ;  while  few  of  the  saline 
springs  of  the  second  class  contain  more  than  one  half  of  this 
proportion,  and  some  of  them  very  much  less. 

With  regard  to  the  iodides  in  many  of  thèse  w»teÀ,  how- 
-«TOTî  the  case  ts^  very  différent     The  wateM  id  4^  modem 


I3L]  CHEMISTRT  OP  NATUEAL  WATERS.  I43 

océan,  as  is  weU  known,  contain  but  traces  of  iodinA.*  „n^  • 

•  wZCiâ  T-  ^r^  -'  *^«  ^:L'^z  t  ?:? 

aciu,  witbout  previous  evaporation,  yield  with  a  sait  of  nnllo 

SLTw  fh'"~'°  ^^^^^^^^^^  to  a  graduai  élimination  of 
Th«  1  h«  ««a-^»te«,  and  its  fixation  in  the  earth's  crust 

The  observations  of  numerous  chemists  unité  to  show  tVel^ 

combmat,on,  m  sed.mentary  rocks  of  varions  kinds  ;  from  whJh 


^#«><^t^J4i^>>^' .  >kM. 


T*V.>V'^'";''7"'- 


144 


CHEMISTBY  OF  NATUEAIi  WATEBS. 


px. 


It^^ 


we  may  conjecture  that  it  waa  in  former  times  abstracted  from 
the  sea,  either'  directly  or  through  the  intervention  of  organic 
bodies  (as  in  the  case  of  potash,  which  ia  separated  and  fixed 
by  means  of  algse,  §  5).  Experiments  after  the  manner  of  those 
of  Way  and  Voelcker  may  throw  light  upon  thia  interesting 
question.  We  are  aware  that  insoluble  combinations  of  solu- 
ble  fihlorides  with  silicates  of  alumina  are  found  uuder  certain 
conditions,  as  ^ppears  in  sodalite,  eudialyte,  and  the  chlorifer- 
ous  micas,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  soluble  iodides 
may  give  rise  to  similar  compounds.  By  such  a  process  might 
be  explained  the  rarity  of  this  élément  in  modem  seas,  while 
the  occasional  re-solution  of  the  iodine  from  thèse  insoluble 
compounds  by  infiltrating  waters  would  help  to  explain  the 
variable  and  often  large  proportions  in  which  this  élément  is 
met  with  in  some  of  the  waters  noticed  above. 

§  61.  SuLPHATES.  —  In  the  preceding  sections  we  hâve  already 
discussed  the  principal  facts  in  the  history  of  those  neutral 
waters  in  which  sulphates  predominate,  or  prevail  tb  the  ex- 
clusion of  chlqrides  (§§  50,  51),  The  history  and  the  probable 
origin  of  those  curions  springs  which  contain  free  sulphuric 
acid  bas  alstt,  been  considered  (§§  31, '48,  49)  ;  and  it  now  re- 
mains to  notice  the  relation  of  sulphates  to  the  muriated  waters. 
The  first  fact  that  excites  our  attention  is  that  of  the  total 
absence  of  sulphates  from  numerouç  springs  of  the  first,  sec- 
ond, and  third  classes,  as  shown  in  the  preceding  analyses,  and 
also  in  the  observations  of  Lenny  and  others  on  the  saline 
waters  over  a  great  area  in  western  Pennsylvania  (§  40). 

îhe  élimination  of tsulphate  in  the  form  of  gypsum  from 
evaporating  waters  containing  an  excess  of  chloride  of  calcium 
bas  already  been  discussed  in  §  37  ;  but  the  bittems  resulting 
from  such  a  process  still  retain  small  portions  of  sulphates; 
while  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  saline  vraters  under  consid- 
ération contain  no  traces  of  sulphates,  and  in  many  instances 
hold  portions  of  baryta  and  strontia,  bases  incompatible  with 
the  présence  of  sulphates.  The  modes  in  which  this  complète 
élimination  of  sulphates  may  be  efifected  are  two  in  nuiflber. 
=^Che  first  haaakêaây  been  suggested  in  §  10,  and  depfuads  upon , 


IX-]  CHEMISTKY  OF  NATURAL  WÏTERS.  145 

into  carbonates   thfl  «.  ln>^  T  ^°  "^^  ^  converted 

It  18  a  fact  worthy  of  notice,  that  a  saline  spring  at  Sahr« 

§  62.  I  am  mdebted  to  Professor  Pmft  «f  t  '  *  ^ 
notes  of  a  .cent  exanunationtrhL^^Ll^^^^^^^ 
class.  which  contains  at  the  Le  time  a  sotbTelp^^,* 
Th^  water  fron.  a  boring  in€hathan..  olrio,  a  a  S^f 
600  feet,  and  about  236  feet  beW  the  snmmit  of  the  Cor^fe^ 
eus  h,  tone,  had  a  spécifie  g^vity  of  1039.3,  and" 
for  1,000  parts  about  51  of  solid  matters.     It  containeriar«e 

httle  sulphate  traces  of  carbonate,  and  no  free  ca  bonic  aci7 
The  water,  which  gave  an  alkaline  reaction  ^th  tun^eric  w^ 
greemsh  zn  color,  very  sulphurous  to  the  taste,  and  ytlded^ 
purpk  co lor  wxth  nitroprusside  of  sodium,  and  1  blacCetpi! 

rent  of  carbomc  acid  rendered  the  récent  water  opalescent  Z       ^ 
by  exposure  to  the  air  it  deposited  sulphur.*       ''^''''"*'  ^"'^ 

paUr  "^"  '^^^  °'  watersofthis  class,  see  the  Supplément  toty. 


# 


.A  HiaS^jn'f  îw^fe-StSn*  i    'va^lLit-' 


■  j'Jk  <  i  '*  <jï^^/î^ 


U-S^--.^-;'u':-* 


146  CHEMISTRY  OP  NATURAL  WATERS.  [IX. 

§  63.  Borates.  — ^The  reddening  of  the  yellow  color  of  tur- 
meric-paper  in  présence  of  free  hydrochloric  acid  afforda,  with 
certain  précautions,  the  ordinary  nieans  for  detecting  small  por- 
tions of  boric  acid.  Most  of  the  waters  of  the  third  and  fourth 
classes,  and  some  of  those  of  the  second,  hâve  heen  tested  in 
this  way,  and  hâve  never  failed  when  reduced  to  a  small  vol- 
ume, and  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  to  give  this  ré- 
action ;  which  was,  however,  most  marked  with  the  waters  of 
the  fourth  class.  .  t  .  . 

§  64.  I  hâve  recently  had  an  opportunity  of  examining  from 
Califomia  the  waters  of  a  borax-lake,  which  oontains,  besidè 
borate  and  carbonate  of  soda,  a  portion  of  chloride,  and  a  little 
silicate,  traces  oiUy  of  phosphate,  and  no  sulphate.  It  held 
in  solution  very  small  quantities  of  earthy  carbonate,  and  was 
remarkable  for  the  large  proportion  of  potassium-salt  which  it 
contains.  The  evaporated  and  fused  saline  residue  was  treated 
by  the  ordinary  methods  for  the  détermination  of  the  chlorine, 
carbonic  acid,  and  silica  ;  while  the  bases  were  obtained  in  the 
fonn  of  sulphAtes  by  the  aid  of  sulphuric  and  hydroâuoric 
acids,  and  afterwards  separated  as  chlorides  by  the  aid  of  chlo- 
ride of  platinum.  From  the  data  thus  obtained  the  following 
ingrédients  were  found  by  calculation  for  1,000  parts  of  the 
water  :  — 

Carbonate  of  soda      .        •        •        •        •*     •        9.476 

Bi borate  of  soda 4.395 

Chloride  of  sodium 1.702 

Carbonate  of  potash 1.818 

smca •     _^ 

17.620 

f 

The  potassium,  as  above  determined,  equals  11.46  per  cent 
of  the  l^ases  weighed  as  chlorides;  another  trial  gave  11.41. 
Although  for  convenience  we  hâve  represented  the  potassium 
as  carbonate,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  amount  of  chlorine  is 
such  that  it  might,  for  the  greater  part,  bave  been  represented 
as  chloride  of  potassium,  with  an  équivalent  portion  additional 
of  carbonate  of  soda. 


% 


-a^.  Ml^TtJ<i&.4 


\f 


«•]  CHEMISTET  OF  NATOHAL  WATEBS.  I47 

f«ol  m  Tiew  that,  afler  «,  inter»al  of  m^JT 

y^™.  I  ««.en.,  «.,  .«laiZ  oricr^:  ^si:. 

H7  .,e  g.v™  «de  by  sid.  with  the  eariier  reauit..    T„  the^ 
bad  become  waters  of  the  second  clasa,  holdiL    ilf^!^  7 

s:^^r  st  °'n-  -t''-  ^^^^^^ 

GasSpring.        .  ,«/**''  **"• 

Saline  Spring   .  *        *        '     -J"»  «»mmes.      .671  grammes. 

SulphurSpring    .    '        '        *        '„!       "  •««*       " 

^     *  •         •        •     -690       "  .573       .. 

1865  onlv   278^/1.11'.^  *^'  *^'  «'«^^  ^t«r  in 
"uiy  .//»  of  carbomc  acid  waa  reauired      Tt,  t\,^  a  i 

jye  Me  feUmg  off  u,  th^rooturt  of  carbonates  in  1865^1^ 


.^rtU»j>. 


■-■^-.-iVT-ii^-   •-S'ï-^Mi»f*^.?'..77 


148 


CHEMISTEY  OF  NATURAL  WATERS. 


[IX. 


,_  »».  ï„V> 


siich  that  only  .191  of  carbonic  acid,  or  just  about  one  thml 
of  the  carbonic  acid  présent,  is  required  for  the  neutral  car- 
bonate. Nor  ia  this  change  due  entirely  to  a  leas  amount  of 
carbonate  of  soda  ;  the  carbonates  of  Urne  and  magnesia  in 
1847  required  .246,  and  in  1865  only  .153,  of  carbonic  acid. 
The  changed  conditions  which  we  hère  meet  witl^may  be  ex- 
plained  by  supposing  that  the  carbonated  bases  are  due  to  the" 
mingling  in  différent  proportions  of  neutral  carbonate  of  soda 
(generated  by  the  reaction  indicated  in  §  13)  with  an  earthy- 
s^ne  water  holding  a  constant  amount  of  free  carbonic  acid  ; 
which,  i»  soKie  cases,  is  more  than  is  required  to  form  bicar- 
bonates, but  in  others,  as  we  have  seen  above,  shbws  a  de- 

ticiency. 

§  66.  If  we  admit,  as  I  have  already  asaumed,  that  the 
waters  of  the  second  and  third  classes  have  been  generated  by 
the  mingling  of  solutions  of  carbonate  of  soda  with  waters  of 
the  first  class,  it  can  readily  be  shown  that  thèse  solutions 
contained  chiefly  or  exclusively  the  neutral  carbonate.     If  we 
add  a  solution  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  to  earthy-sa^ine  ^aters 
of  the  first  class,  it  is  easy  to  obtain  solutions  hol^g  Wènty 
grammes  or  more  of  bicarbonate  of  magnesia  to  the  litre  ;  whilo 
in  none  of  the  natural  waters  of  the  second  class  do  oht  anal- 
yses show  the  existence  of  much  over  one  gramme  to  the  litre. 
Again,  if  we  suppose  any  considérable  amount  of  chloride  of 
calcium  to  be  decomposed  by  bicarbonate  of  soda,  thô  sépara-  , 
tion  of  the  Ume  in  the  form  pf  neutral  carbonate,  and  tho 
libération  of  the  second  équivalent   of  carbonic  acid,  would 
yield  waters  holding  an  excess  of  carbonic  acid  above  that 
,i»quired  to  form  the  bicarbonates  of  the  solution.     From  the 
absence  of  such  an  excess,  as  appears  in  the  case  of  the  waters  of 
"Caledonia,  Varennes,  aûd  St.  Léon,  and  from  the  small  amount 
of  bicarbonate  of  magnesia  in  thèse  waters,  it  may  be  concluded 
that  the  alkaline  sait  whose  addition  bas  changed  their  charac- 
ter  was  the  neutral  carbonate  of  soda. 

§  67.  Examples  are  not  wanting  of  waters  in  which,  as  m 

those  of  Caledonia  in  1847,  the  carbonic  acid  is  insufficient  to 

=form  bicarbonates  (or  evea  neutral  carbonates)  with  the  bases 


*.'. 


, .,  ^■i^  /sij^-O  Jt'iiâ 


m^ 


I3L1 


CHEMI8TBY  OP  NATURAL  WATEBa 


149 


uncombmed  with  eulphuric  acid  or  chlorine.  Thus.  accord- 
ing  to  Pagenstecher  and  Muller.  the  spring  and  weU  watem  of 
Berne  do  not  contain  sufficient  carbonic  acid  for  the  lime 
présent  a  part  of  which  they  suppose  to  be  held  in  solution  as 

thatT      :  '''''f'  '"'''''•  ''^''^'  '•  '■'  who  remarks 

that  Lowig  seems  to  hâve  observed  the  same  fact  in  the  ther- 
mal spnng  of  Pfoffers^    For  further  examples  of  this  icind  see 

water  of  lophtz  is,  according  to  him,  not  sufficient  to  form 
bicarbonates  unless  the  silica  posent  be  supposed  to  be  com- 
bined  mth  a  portion  of  bases;  while  in  the  alkaline  thennal 
spnng  of  Bertnch   according  to  the  analysis  of  Mohr,  a  similar 
defaciency  of  carbonic  acid  exists;    leading  to  the  conclusion 
that  a  part  of  the  earthy  bases  présent  is  in  combinatioii  with 
silica  and  oipmc  matters.     The  existence  of  solutions  holding 
comparatively  large  amounts  of  neutml  carbonates  of  lime  and 
magnesia.  as  desçribed  in  §  56,  is  not  ^without  interest  in  this 
connection;  since  it  at  once  affords  an  explanation  of  the  na- 
ture and  origin  of  ail  such.  alkaline  waters,  and  wateî«  déficient 
m  carbonic  acid,  as  contain  earthy  sulphates  and  chlorides, 

§  68.  It  w-as  found  that  the  \^atera  of  Chambly  in  1864 
and  of  the  Sulphur  Sprin^  Caleaonia,in-1865,  gave  with 
inne-water  a  precipitate  w^Pvas  soluble  in  an  excess  of  thèse 
minerai  waters,  but  to  a  mM  less  extent  than  in  the  acidu- 
]^U8   saline  water  from  the  High-Eock  Spring  of  Saratoga. 
Ihe  latter,  which  contains  bicarbonate  of^oda,  and  is  highiy 
charged  with  carbonic  acid,  tums  to  a  wAd  the  blue  color 
of  litmus-tincture,  ^hich  is  not  changed  by  the  Chambly  br 
the  Caledonia  water.     The  Saratoga  water,  after  some  tirae 
gives  a  feeble  alkaline  reaction  with  dahlia-paper  ;  this  is  mor^ 
distinctly  but  slowly  changed  by-ihe  C^edonia  water,  and 
aJmost  mimediately  tumed  to  .green  by  that   of  Chambly. 
This  latter  water  readily  changes  to  brown  yellow  tumerio- 

^T^q'^q       *'  "^"''^^^  *^^'^^  ^y  *^^  "^^^"^  «^  Caledonia. 
§  69.  SiLÇîA.  —  The  silica  which  exists  in  solution  ^n  cold 
saline  springs  is  generally  very  small  in  amount,  as  might  be     \ 

ftXPactfxL^fWtm   Alla  1.^.^1.. l-crhi. j>- .j .  5^ : — 


*   „^--      ^ •'  '^'J  "'""^i  lu  uinouni,  as  might  be 

«xpgçted^om  the  insolubii^of  ^liy-siiicates,  wÔch  F 


'.ikV?(J^.^ 


^. 


150 


QïfteMISTRT  OP  NATURAL  WATÈB8. 


[IX. 


Buch  that  siîperficial  tjminago  watere-  in  filtermg  through  tho 
soil  lose  tho  silica*  which  thejr  holil  in  solution  (§  5).  Wo 
hâve  Airther  shown  that  as  a  reault  of  this  tendoncy  to  tho 
formation  of  insoluble  «ilicates,  the  silicate  of  soda  liberated '^"" 
in.the  sédiments  by  the  decon»position  of  feldspar  generally 
appoara,at  the  surftice  as^càrbonate  of  soda,  having  beon  de- 
coniiwseid  by  earthy  carbonates  (§  13)."       -^ 

In  two  cases,  howevèr,  considérable  quantities^  silica  are 
found  dissolved  in  naturel  waters.  The  iirst  is  met  with  whem 
the  rapid  solvent  and  decomposfng  action  of  heated  waters 
'  is  exerted  upon  alkalifenjus  sUicious  minerais  (§  14),  as  seen 
in  spriiigs  like  the  Geysers,  The  second  case  is  that  of  those 
;river8  and  streams  whioh  drain  surfaces  covered  with  decaying 
végétation  and  decomposing- silicates,  from'T)oth  of  which'they 
dérive  dissolved  silica.  Such  waters  contain  but  small  amounts 
of  solid  matters,  but  the  proportion  of  silica  is  relatively  con- 
Biderable,  amounting,  as  we  hâve  seen  in  the  water  of  tho 
Ottawa  River,  whicli  contains,  in    10,000  parts,   0.6U6\)f 

,  solid  matters,  to  0.2060,  or  thirty-two   per  cent;  whUe  in    ■< 
the  St.   Lawrence,  which  contains,  for  the  same  amount  of 
water,  1.6056,  the  silica  equals  .3700,  or  twepty-four  per  cent, 
'    of  the  solid  ingrédients.     The  analysis  by  H.  Ste-Clai^  De-  " 
ville  of  the  rive^waters  of  France  show,  in  like-manner,  largo- 
amount?  of  sUica,  which  seem  to  hâve  been  hitherto  overlooked 

.  m  tRe  analyses  of  most  chemists.    (Ann.  de  Chim.  et  Phys  ^3), 
XXIII.  32.)  ^    ^  ^' 

It  wUl  be  seen  by  a 'reference  to  the  tables  of  analys^C, , 
giyen  in  the  Second  part  of  this  ^per,  that  in  the  waters  of  ^ - 
the  second  class  the  amount  of  sUTca  is  equal  to  from  0.15 
tb  0.60  parts  for  100  of  solid  matter.  In  the  alkaline  waterg 
of  the  third  and  fourth  dasses  its  proportion  is  greater,  and  up 
to  a  certain  point  appears  to  increase  with  that  of  the  caçbon; 
ate  of  soda.  ....  The  amount  of  silfca  which  thèse  waters  con- 
tain does  not  in  any  case  exceed  one  or  two  ten-thousandths. 

§  70.  Inasmuçh  as  carbonic  acid,  according  to  Bischof 
(CheBj.  GeoL,  I.  2),  décomposes  not  only  the  silicates  of  sorfa, 
but  those  of  lime  and   magnesia,  when  they  are  in  solu-. 


^mf     '  .  U  4SÏS4'''.<*J^ 


( 


J 


«.] 


I 

CHEMI8TRY  OP  ITATUIUl  WATEKa 


151 


\ 


tion,  it* might  be  supposea  that  the  eilica  in  fh„  '  i. 

exista  either  in  a  free  «t«t«  cJi  T  ?  '  *^°^®  ^'^*«" 

wE  foramrt^^tr  y  ""•"'^*^«    expérimenta 

-bonate^  Uiaaolved  T^CL  TZ::^  ^^t  """^ 
déacribed  in  h  56    wh^fh^r  »       "*  ^''«nesia  m  the  manner 

m     heae   expérimenta,,  beaides  the   carbonate  of  n,«,^    •      " 

prosluchon  of  sUioatea  of  lime  «.d  «ioda  S L        '^^ 
«.ed^h  Aoearth,  carboS!^:^^  r ^^ 

(B  JhTn>    1-       "f"  °'  '^"^'^  "<•  «'  M^ienbad 

«on  im  Vute  LE   'f  lr^'~'  '^•''""'  """Wng  ia  solu- 
«f  li  J  °dZ„,W^  ?■  '™'°°°'  °'  *  *»»°l'«ï  >«•=«'«      ■ 
(2),  }j:iL  377.)  ^        ^^^®^'  ^'^^-  Science 

-ater^'^aaa  ilÎ ™  ^-  a 

bonatis  of  limé   ;,.  \  of  carbonate  of  soda,  and  car- 

•^^*»  ^«P^rted  witfi  the  carbonates  .050  of  %ilica,  an<i  the 


"  ^;-r 


V 


M 


f-  (  ! 


152 


CHEMISTRY  OP  NATURAL  WATERS. 


px. 


y 


hydrochloric  solution  of  thia  précipitât©  becaine  gelatinous  dur- 
ing  evaporation.  The  water  thus  evaporated  still  retained  in 
solution,  besides  a  pcSrtion  of  lime,  .064  of  silica  ;  wtich  was 
completely  separated  when  the  alkaline  liquid  was  evaporated 
to  dryness  in  contact  with  the  earthy  carbonates.  preViously 
precipitated.  W^en,  however,  thèse  were  removed  by  filtratix)ii, 
it  was  found  that  during  the  evaporation  to  dryness  a  reaction 
took  place  by  whicb  the  precipitated  silicate  of  lime  was  par-  / 
tially  decomposed,  the  separated  silica  being  redissolved  by  tliQ^^ 
alkaline  carbonate.  In  the  case  of  the  Chambly  water  in  1852, 
which  contained  in  1,000  parts  .073  of  silica,  .042  parts  stiU 
remained  in  solution  in  the  water  evaporated  to  one  twentieth  ; 
and  in  that  of'  the  Ottawa  River  when  reduced  to  one  foriieth 
there  stUl  remained  in  solution  from  10,000  parts  of  water, 
.075  of  silica  and  .028  of  lime.  Similar  results  were  observed 
with  the  alkaline-saline  waters  of  Varennes  and  Fitzroy,  and 
ail  of  thèse  yielded,  by  further  evaporation,  précipitâtes  con- 
taining  silica  and  lime,  and  in  one  instance  magnesia. 

It  is  not,  however,  probably  from  alkaline  Waters  like  thèse, 
but  from  neutral  sea-water,  that  the  siUcates  of  magnesia  (and 
of  lime),  which  abound  in  stratified  rocks,  hâve  been  for  the 
most  part  formed.     See  further  on  this  point,  §  41. 

§  71.  Obganio  Matters.  —  In  §  44  wehavedescribed  some 
of  the  reactions  of  the  organic  matter  found  in  the  Chambly 
water,  and  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  small  portions  of  a  similar 
substance  were  found  in  ail  alkaline  waters  of  the  third  and 
fourth  classes,  and  caused  them  to  become  brownish  .when 
evaporated  to  a  small  volume.  This,  it  has  been  abeady  sug- 
gested,  may  hâve  a  superficial  origin,  the  organic  matters  car- 
ried  down  by  surface-waters  being  kept  in  solution  by  the, 
alkaline  salts  ;  it  is  not,  however,  impossible  that  this  same 
menstruum  may  remove  the  organic  matters  which  abound  in 
the  pyrosçhists  and  other  materials  of  organic  origin  in  tho 
ancient  rocks.  Thus,  for  example,  thehjoprolites  of  the  lower 
palœozoic  Umestones  contain  so  much  animal  matter  as  to  evolve 
=^m  odôgl^ft  bmmog  bom  when  expQg^  to  beat,    (Geology  of 


/ 


Canada,  462.) 


"'f-- 


P"  w»^ 


IX.] 


CHEMISTRY  OF  NATURAL  WA^ERS. 


153 


The  Ottawa  water  (§  46),  when  boiled  to  one  tenth,  deposits 
a  precipitate  in  small  bright  brown  iridoscent  scales.     This  wua 
found  to  contain  silica,  carbonate  of  lime,  and  a  small  portion 
of  an  organic  substance  which  was  dissolved  in  dilate  potash 
ley.     The  brown  solution  thus  obtained  was  not  disturbed  by 
acetic  acid  and  acétate  of  copper,  but  by  the  subséquent  ad- 
dition of  carbonate  of  ammonia  yielded  a  white  precipitate. 
The  concentrated  water  retained  a^hge  proportion  of  organic 
matter,  and  when  reduced  to  a  smHl  bulk  was  dark  brown, 
alkaline  to  turmeric-paper,  and  continued  by  evaporation  to  de- 
posit  opaque  films  of  silicate  of  lime.     The  finally  dried  residue 
was  dark  brown  in  color,  and  carbonized  by  beat,  burning  like 
tinder  and  diffusing  an  agreeable  odor.     The  residue  of  10,000 
parts  dried  at  300°  F.  weighed   .6974,   and   lost  by  gentle 
ignition  .1635,  consisting  partly  of  organic  matter.     No  chemi- 
cal  examination  was  made  of  this  matter  held  in  solution  by 
the  concentrated  water.     From  the  late  researches  of  Peligot, 
however,  it  appears  that  the  organic  matter  precipitated  by 
nitrate  of  lead  from  the  water  of  the  Seine  has  nearly  the  com- 
position of  the  apocrenic  acid  of  Berzelius.     It  gave,-  on  analy- 
sis,  carbon  53.1,  hydrogen  2.7,  nitrogen  2.4,  oxygen  41.8,  and 
is  evidently  rdated  to  jthe  soluble  form  of  vegetable  humus. 
(Comptes  Rendus,  April  25,  1864.)    When  exposed  to  beat 
this  substance  evolved  ammonia,  with  the  odor  of  burning 
wool,  while  the  organic  matter  from  the  Ottawa  water,  on  the 
contrary,  gave  an  odor  like  burning  turf. 


I 


0 


^■t" 


GEOLOGICAL  POSITIONS  OF  THE  PRECEDING  WATERS. 

§  72.  The  palœozoic  area  irom  which  the  above-described 
waters  are  derived  includes  the  baain  of  the  St.  Lawrence  from 
Lake  Erie  to  near  Québec,  with  its  extensions  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Lower  Ottawa  and  Lake  Champlain.  Over  the  greater  part 
of  thia  éhampaign  région  the  strata  are  nearly  horizontal,  but 
-iûWtoda  4ta  eastern  part  ther©  are  vanouB-Tninop  folds  gnd  nïF 


dulationa.    It  is  in  thia  disturbed  région  that  by  far  the  greater 


^£H«liS£'fe!(t-l,   ^■^-^J'ia   %-^-i      *^'v^^S\.. 


,  A»"^  J  S^tf'iaU  j  .-1-'"'    A-^' 


154 


CHEMISTRY  OF  NATURAL  WATERS. 


[I?. 


number  of  tlie  minerai  springs  already  describèd  occur;  and 
altliough  it  is  often  difficult  to  establish  the  présence  or  to  trace 
the  extent  of 'faults  in  the  strata,  on  account  of  the  alluvial  de- 
posits  which  generally  cover  the  palseozoic  strata  of  the  région, 
it  is  apparent  that  in  a  great  number  of  cases  the  minerai  springs 
occur  along  the  lines  of  disturbauce,  and  it  is  probable  that  a  con- 
stant i-elation  of  this  kind  exists.  The  great  western  portion  of 
the  basin,  which  is  less  disturbed  than  its  eastern  part,  présents 
but  few  minerai  springs  ;  yet  the  wells  of  strongly  saline  water 
which  hâve  been  obtained  by  boring  at  Kingston,  Hallowell, 
St.  Catherine's,  Chatham,  and  elsewhere  in  Ontario,  show  that 
the  undistiîrbed  rocky  strata  are  chai:ged  with  saline  matters. 
For  a  better.  understanding  of  the  relations  of  thèse  waters,  a 
list  of  the  paliBozoic  formations  in  which  the  minerai  springs 
hère  described  occur  is  given  below,  numbered  in  ascending 
order.  [Of  thèse  the  first  six  correspond  to  the  first  and  second 
palsBozoic  faunas,  the  Cambrians  of  Sedgwick  and  the  Lower 
Silurian  of  Murchison,  while  7-l2  include  the  third  fauna, 
or  true  Silurian,  and  the  remaining  three  the  lower  part  of  the 
Devonian  séries.]  • 

Palœozoic  Formations  of  the  St.  Lavrrence  Basin. 

15.  Hamilton,  —  shales. 
14.  CoHNiFEROTTS,  — limestono. 
13.  Okiskany,  —  sandstone. 
12.  LoVek  Helderbero, — limestone. 
11.  Onondaoa,  OR  Salina, — dolomite  and  shales. 
•  10.  GuELPH, — dolomite. 

9.  Niagara,  —  dolomite. 

8.  Clinton,  —  dolomite  and  shales. 

7.  Médina,  —  sandstone. 

6.  HuDSON  River, — shales. 

6.  Utica,  —  shales. 

4.  Trenton,  —  limestone. 
_,  8.  Chazy,  —  limestone. 

'    /    2.  CAIX3IFEROIJS,  —  dolomite. 

1.  PoTSDAM, — sandstone. 

4M.   ûf  the  ahove  sorie9  the  Tienton  gtoap  includes  the 
Birds-eye  and  Black  Eiver  limestones,  as  well  as  the  Trenton 


i. 


IX.]  CHEMISTHY  OF  NATURAL  WATEES.    '  155 

Wone  of  the  New  York  geologists,  and  is  non-magneaian 
nclosmg  beds  of  chert,  siliciiied  fossila,  and  petroleuxaTHl 

above  In  rr  "  '*  -^bl-the  Corniferous  li^esto^ 
aboje.  In  like  manner  the  Potedam  is  represented  bv  the 
Hudson  Eiver  and  Médina  formations,  while  ihe  JJiîe^t 
dolomite  of  theso-caUed  Calciferous  sand-rock  corSonrto 
hegi^atma^of  dolomite  which  constitutes  XosTlO  a^d 
11,  and  includes  the  gypsum  and  the  ^t-bearing  sti.L  of 
the  X)nondaga  fonnation.  Thèse  répétitions  of  siiilar  stri 
mark  succe,ssive  récurrences  of  similar  geological  and  l^^ 
t^cllrn^^^^'  .hich  form  great  cycfes  in^he  hS^/of 

t^t  *^;/^^^,^  ^«  of  the  Green  Mountains,  Ind  th2 
^east  to  Québec,  and  beyond  it  on  the  south^ast  sh!!::  " 
1!  ;  ^^^f  «'  ^  «Pread  a  great  séries  including  about  7  000 
fe  t  of  hmestones,  dolomite,,  shales,  and  sandsLes.     W 

ha^  caUed  the  Québec  group,  and  are  the  Taconic  of  EmmoC 
or  the  Pnmal  and  Aun,„.l  of  Hoge.,  containing  organic  ^t^ 
^^r^  P;^*"'"'"  ^'"""'  ^d  corresponding  to  the  Lower 

wf  ""r'r  ^'  '^^^^«^'  of  which  the  firstlthle 
format  ons  m  the  above  table  are  but  incomplète  and  liite^ 
or  shallow-water  deposits.  (See  further,  pape'r  xV.,  paW  3 T 
Jfone  of  the  wate«  described  in  the  p4ent  paper  beW^l 
this  Québec  group,  which,  nevertheless.  présents  slral  L^r^ 

OfT:  T  '?'^'^'  ^"  ^^^"^^  ^  *h«  «-^«^  of  Canada 
Of  thèse,  the  sahnes  of  Cacouna,  Green  Island,  iSÎièré  OueU^ 

th«  fi  >  ■  f  °°'  ^l  ^"  ^"^*^^^  ^'^  ^i*t«'  ^«te«  belonging  to 

^da^oth       ;n'ï'  ^  ^"'P'"""«  «P""«  «*  t^«  ^«tt- place 
and  another  at  Québec,  ar«  alkaline  waters  of  the  fourth  cîass. 

thi!  n!;  r*'''  '^  *^'  ™«^""  ^^^«^^  ^^  consldered  in 

he^doscriCrr  T^"  <ï"^"^«-«ly  «nalyzed  which  ar«  not 
he^  doscnbed     Including  two  from  Vermont,  twentyK,ne  alka- 

^^y^^^S^^^f^î^^--^  Galedonia  ri^^ 


i'I 


^^  Œe  lîenton  group,  and  ^of .Fitzroy  from  the  Chazy  or 


£^^Wd 


.  »  s.n  1»  >. 


j>'^jt 


156 


CHEMISTRY  OF  NATURAL  WATERS. 


[IX. 


Calciferous,  while  two  othera,  at  Ste.  Martine  and  Rawdon, 
appear  to  hâve  their  source  iû  the  Potsdam.  AU  the  other 
walera  of  thèse  two  classes  issue  from  the  Hudson  Eiver  shales, 
with  the  exception  of  those  of  Varennes  and  Jacques  Cartier, 
which  seem  to  rise  from  the  Utica  formation, 

Of  the  waters  of  the  second  class,  of  which  about  thirty  hâve 
been  examined,  some  five  or  six  issue  from  the  shale  formations 
Nos,  5  and  6,  but  ail  the  others  are  from  the  underlying  .lime- 
stones,  The  bitter  salines  of  the  first  class  flow  from  the  lime- 
stones  of  the  Trenton  group,  Avith  the  exception  of  one  at 
Ancaster,  which  is  froçi  à  well  sunk  in  the  Niagara  formation, 
and  that  of  St.  Catherine's,  from  a  boring  carried  through  the 
Médina  down  into  the  Hudson  River  shales.  The  source  of 
both  of  thèse  is  probably,  like  that  of  the  other  v«ry  similar 
waters,  the  underlying  limestones. 

§  76.  From  this  distribution  of  the  waters  of  the  first  four 
classes  it  would  appear  that  the  source  of  the  neutral  salts, 
which  consist  of  alkaline  and  earthy  chlorides,  is  in  the  lime- 
stoues  and  other  strata  from  the  Potsdam  to  the  Trenton  inclu- 
sive, while  the  alkaline  carbonates  are  derived  from  the  argilla- 
ceous  sédiments  which  make  up  the  Utica  and  Hudson  River 
formations.  The  sédiments  are  never  déficient  in  alkaUne  sili- 
'cates,  whose  slow  décomposition  yields  to  infiltrating  waters 
(§  13)  the  alkaline  carbonates  which  characterize  the  minerai 
springa  of  the  fqurth  class.  Thèse,  mingling  in  varions  propor- 
tions with  the  brines  which  rise  from  the  limestones  beneath, 
produce  the  waters  of  the  second  and  third  classes  in  the  man- 
ner  akeady  explained.  ITie  appearance  of  several  springs  of 
the  third  class,  as  those  of  Caledonia  and  Fitzroy,  from  thèse 
lower  limestones,  is  not  surprising,  when  it  is  considered  that 
the  Chazy  formation  in  the  Ottawa  Valley  includes  a  considéra- 
ble thickness  of  shales,  sandstones,  and  argillaceous  limestones, 
approaching  in  composition  to  the  sédiments  of  the  Hudson 
Eiver  formation. 

§  77.  As  an  évidence  that  the  différent  classes  of  waters 
hâve  their  origin  in  différent  strata,  may  be  cited  the  fact  that 
springs  vely  unlikè  în^  coâposirtion  wré  often  Ï5ïmd  in  cîôsê^ 


\      f-^x/i*À 


.■»*■■ 


IX.] 


CHEMISTBY  OF  NATUEAL  WATEES. 


proxjmity,  and  apparently  min^  from  a  common  fissure  or  dis- 
location.    Thus  in  the  seigniories  of  Nicofdt  and  La  Baie  du 
febvre,  I  hâve  examined  six  sprin^,  ail  of  which  rise  through 
the  Utica  fonnation  along  a  line,  in  a  distance  of  about  eight 
inUes.     Of  thèse  springs  two  belong  to  the  second,  two  to  the 
third  and  two  to  the  fourth  class  ;  thèse  last  being  probablv 
denved  entirely  from  the  shales,  while  the  othei«  hâve  theîr 
source  in  the  underlying  limestones,  and  are  more  or  Iqss  modified 
m  their  ascent.     Again,  at  Sabrevois,  within  a  few  feet  of  each 
other,  are  two  springs  of  the  second  class,  of  which  one  contains 
8altà  of  baiyta  and  strontia,  and  the  other  soluble  sulphates 
In  hke  manner  at  Ste.  Anne  de  la  Pocàtière  a  spring  of  thé 
second  class  and  one  of  the  fourth  are  found  not  far  apart 
The  springs  of  Caledouia  offer  another  and  not  less  remarkablê 
example.    In  1847  there  were  to  be  seen,  not  far  from  a  sprint 
of  the  second  class,  three  others  of  the  third  class  very  near  to! 
gether,  one  of  them  sulphurous,  but  aU  sulphated,  and  difi-ering 
m  the  proportions  of  carbonate  of  spda  présent.     In   1865 
while  one  of  thèse  still  retained  its  character  of  a  sulphurous 
sulphated  water  of  the  third  class,  the  othere  were  changed  to 
waters  of  the  second  class,  and  held  salts  of  baryta  in  solution. 
Ihese  relations,  which  we  hâve  already  pointed  out  (§  47)  not 
onlyshow  waters  holding  incompatible  salts  issuing  from  dif- 
lerent  strata  along  the  same  fissure,  but  mingling  in  such  vary- 
ing  proportions  as  to  produce  from  time  to  time  changes  in  the 
constitution  of  the  resulting  springs. 

§  78  The  température  of  none  of  the  springs  which  we  hâve  . 
hère  descnbed  exceeds  53°,  which  has  been  observed  for 
^aaT''^  ^*  Chambly,  about  twelve  miles  from  Montréal 
(S  44).  No  other  springs  in  Canada  are  known  to  present  so 
high  température,  unlesa  possibly  the  acid  watera  of  the  fifth 
class  (§  48).  St.  Léon  spring  was  found  to  be  46°,  while  that 
ot  Caxton,  near  the  last,  and  like  it  of  Class  IL,  was  49°  F. 

§  79.  The^extended  séries  of  analyses  which  we  hâve  given 
in  the  precedmg  pages  presents  many  poi^  of  interest.  No- 
where  else,  it  isbelieved,  has  such  a  complète  systematic  exam-. 


i 


\" 


Éi^^SSs 


158 


CHEMISTRY  OF  NATURAL  WATERS. 


[IX, 


séries,  been  made.  Additional  importance  ia  given  to  thèse 
résulta  by  the  fact  that  the  waters  are  ail  derived  from  palaeozoic 
strata.  We  are  thu»  enabled  to  compare  thèse  saline  mate- 
rials  of  an  ancient  period  with  those  which  issue  from,  and  in 
many  cases  owe  their  saline  imprégnation  to,  strata  of  com- 
paratively  modem  origin  (§  39). 

It  is  a  considerati'on  not  without  interest,  that  the  valley  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  might,  under  différent  metcorological  condi- 
tions, become  a  région  abounding  with  saline  lakes  affording 
sea-salt,  natron,  aiïd  borax,  the  résulta  of  the  evaporation  of  the 
nuœerous  saline  and  alkaline  springs  which  hâve  hère  been 
described.  i 


1»;  •! 


r 


SUPPLEMENT. 

[From  the  Report  of  the  Geological  Snrrey  of  Canada  for  1863  -  66,  pages  272  -  277.] 

As  further/  ekamples  of  saline  waters  of  the  first  class,  such  as 
are  described  in  §§  36-40  of  the  preceding  paper,  I  hère  give 
the  résulta  of  the  analyses  of  two  from  western  Ontario,  both 
which  wete  met  with  in  boring  for  petroleum.  The  first  of 
thèse  is^om  a  well  on  Manitoulin  Island  in  Lake  Huron,  and 
was  fouud  at  a  depth  of  192  feet  from  the  surface,  after  pass- 
ing  through  the  black  slates  of  the  Utica  formation,  and  for 
sixty  feet  in  the  underlying  Trenton  limestone.  The  water 
was  intensely  bitter  and  saline  to  the  taste  ;  it  contained  no 
trace  of  sulphates,  nor  yet  of  barium  nor  strontium.  Jfc  waa 
not  examined  for  bromidea  or  iodides,  which,  however,  were 
probably  présent.  The  analysia  of  this  water  gave,  for  1,000 
parts,  as  follbwa  :  — 

Chlorideof  sodium 4.800 

Chloride  of  potassium .792 

Chloride  of  calcium ,  12.420 

Chloride  of  ma^^nesium 8.650 

21.662 


-** 


I^]  CHEMISTRT  OF  NATUBAL  WATERS.  159 

•  J^^  7*«r  is  remarkable  for  the  amount  of  chlôride  bf 
cdcium  which  it  contains.  equal  to  more  than  one  half  of  the 
sohd  contente,  a  much  larder  proportion  than  in  any  of  the 
bitter  sahne  waters  hitherto  examined  in  Canada,  or  elsewhere. 
In  mo8t  waters  of  this  class,  the  proportion  of  chlôride  of 
potassmm  (as  shown  in  §  52)  is  smaU,  Lly  attaining  o  one 
hundredth  of  the  alkaline  chlorides;  but  L  the  M^nitoulh^ 
water  .t  amounts  to  not  less  than  16.6  per  cent  of  tHbse 
more  than  3.7  percent  of  the  entire  solid  matters,  a  propor- 
lon  a.  great  as  in  modem  sea-water.     This  peculiarity    not 

bittern,  from  which.  owing  to  the  excess  of  lime  in  the  pfimi    - 
^e  seas,  the-^ulphates  hâve  been  eliminated  in  the  form  Tf 
^sum    m  the  process  of  evaporution.     Further  analyses  of 
waters  from  this  région  are  needed  to  complète  their  hisC 

^5  fil  f       T'  t'  P'*"'^""'  ^"  ''''■     ^*  «^  depth  of 
475  feet  from  the  surf^,  and  probably  at  or  near  the  base  of 

rose  to  the  surface,  and  on  the  16th  of  September,^865  was 
yi  Umg  at  the  rate  of  about  700  gallons  per  W  of  bitter  vl^ 
sulphurous  water,  with  a  little  petroleum.     The  tem^alZ 
of  th^  water  was  54°  F.,  or  about  7"  above  the  mean  tfmp^rl 
ureof  the  région,  which  is  traversed  by  the  isotherma  Tn^" 

ure  to  the  air  if  t„^^A  -V  •'""^^sn.     Hy  further  expos- 

perslhTde  an/  >!^"''^'^'"^^  ^™"^  '^«  ^«"«^«o»  of  a 

the  Si  ^'^  -th  a  film  of  sulphur, 

w^  T       5  !  ^®  ^'"  8*^^°g  colorless.     The  color 

-^-J=J^^:^^  the  Bflparotion  ^f  galpbar.     Thsr= 


# 


1 


■  **■     i<  ■ 


!^£.  :^^aéiiMC  «•  .}4t  li&it''  i    14  . 


160 


CHEMISTRY  OP  NATURAL  WATER3. 


px. 


récent  water  was  feebly  alkaline  to  litmus,  but  did  not  affect 
the  color  of  curcuma-paper. 

Thèse  charactere  showed  the  récent  water  to  contain  a  solu- 
ble  monosulphide,  whose  présence  was  further  indicated  by  the 
addition  of  a  solution  of  green  vitriol,  which  gave  an  abun- 
dant  precipitate  of  sulphide  of  iron.  Nitroprusside  of  sodium 
gave  a  fine  purple  color  with  the  water,  which  was  rendered 
more  intense  by  the  previous  addition  of  a  little  caustic  soda. 

When  boiled,  the  récent  water  evolves  an  abundance  of  sul- 
\  phuretted  hydrogen,  and  after  twenty  minutes  of  ebullition 
the  reaction  of  sulphur  disappears  from  the  water  ;  which  be- 
iîomes  turbid,  from  ^he  8epl|ration  of  a  hydrate  of  magnesia, 
rèadily  soluble  in  a  eold  solution  of  sal-ammoniac.  Crystals  of 
gypsum  are  also  deposited  diwing  the  boiling.  Thia  volatiliza- 
tio4  of  the  sulphiur  is  evidently  due  to  the  well-known  de- 
composition  of  sulphide  of  magnésium,  by  boiling,  into  hydrated 
oxidè  of  magnésium  and  aulphuretted  hydrogen  gas.  It  was, 
howcAifer,  a  question  whether  the  whole  of -the  sulphur  in  the 
récent  water  existed  as  a  sulphide  of  sodium  or  magnésium,  or 
whetheE  a  portion  was  présent  as  sulphide  of  hydrogen,  giving 
with  thé  former  a.  double  sulphide  MgS,HS.  This  problem, 
of  considérable  delicacy,  can  only  be  solved  by  indirect  means. 
For  the  détermination  of  the  whole  amount  of  sulphide  in  the 
récent  water,  having  at  the  well  no  other  suitable  reagent,  I 
added  to  twp  bôttles  of  the  water  a  few  grammes  each  of  sul- 
phate  of  copier  ;  the  sulphide  thus  precipitated  was  afterwards 
collected  and  analyzed.  In  that  from  one  bottle  the  amount 
of  sulphur  in  the  precipitate  was  directly  determined,  while  in 
the  other  it  wag  deduced  from  that  of  the  copper.  Thèse  two 
results  gave,  respectively,  .460  and  .464  grammes  of  sulphur  to 
the  litre  of  wat^,  the  mean  of  which,  .462,  is  equal  to  .491 
grammes  of  sulphide  of  hydrogen.  In  addition  to  thèse,  a  dé- 
termination was  ni^de  with  the  water  brought  to  the  labora- 
tory.  This,  wheMniinglecf  wîth  an  acid  solution  of  terchloride 
of  arsenic,  gave  a  qtjantity  M  tersulphide  of  arsenic  equal  to 
.460  grammes  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  indicating  a  slight 
Ipaa  of  sulphur. 


""\- 


/  .      • 


.       K.]  CHEMISTRY  OF  NATURAL- WATER8.  161 

Whea  a  double  sulphide  of  sodium  and  hydrôgen  exista  in 

nesimn,  or  exista  in  a  water  containing  an  excess  oTa  soS" 
raagn-an  sait,  the  x^dy  décomposition  of  su  pTidl  «f  ^t^ 

o^hvLr  f'  ''  «'^Jphuretted  hydrôgen,  with  séparation 

of  hydrate  of  magnesia,  as  is  the  case  of  the  Bothwell  water 
.  The  foUowxng  experiment  was,  however,  devised,  wl  ch  Thows 
^existence  of  a  double  sulphide  in  this  wat^r,  aid  at  tle 
riTr  T.      '  V  '"^^^^*  '  "^^*^«d  whi^h  may  pUabl 

Itt  i^îl  l  ""^.ï^  '^'''^'  °^*^^«  -d  of  simiL^^wate^ 
It  IS  well  known  that  solutions  of  alkaline  and  earthv  sS- 
pbdes  dissolve  tersulphide  of  arsenic,  yielding  douWe^u - 
phides  or  sulphai^nites,  whose  formula,  for  the  alkaline  bal 
Ists'  K  f;-^-;^-X3^«'  -d  fôr  the  earthy  IZ] 
ni  fn;    A  /  .  P«>tosulphides  are  combined  wfth  sul! 

phideof  hydrôgen    forming  double  salts,  MS,HS,  the  latter 
wiU  be  dxsplaced  by  the  aliénions  sulphide.     The  présence  of 
such  a  compound  in  the  Bothwell  water  was  shown^adlg 
to   tfreshJy  precpitated  and  carefully  washed  tersulphide  of 
arsemc,  which  was  rapidly  dissolved,  with  an  abundant  disen 

d'^Sr  f  '^'''"**^'  '^^^««'^  ^  'r^«  solution,  Z 
from  ,the  exce^  of  undissolved  sulphide,  and  supei^turated 
with^acetic  acid,  which  threw  down  a  quantity  of  ^phidHf 
«  equal  to  925  grammes  U>  th^'litre.    AnotW  portion 

^udîo  1  nri"^'"''  T\'"  ^''^°*  of  sulphide  of  arsenic 
equal  to  1.110  grammes  to  the  liti«. 

JlrT.!''^^^  *^'  ^^^""'^  sulphide^of  arsenic  in  the 

«ThaZl     r  '"''"'''  "^  '^^«  ^°  -  '^^  ^^^  o{  a 
0?  sulT      '\^'^''''^'  AsS.2MgS,  in  which  the  amount 

A'>v^...m^.M?>.€17gramm^j|g^gsalphideofai8eiJ^ 


amjÊjt^ 


r" 


'ii4«ik.«*^tf*f*^.i.  aX  >*»a»s4^  i'„*  .iJîti'ijiife 


.•^., 


;»* 


162 


CHEinSTRY  ÔP  NA' 


WATEES. 


px. 


in  the  last  detençination  derived  from  the  magnesian  sulphide, 
leaving  1.1 10 j — .617  =  .493  grammes  due  to  the  sulphide  of 
hydrogen  in  the  water.  If,  however,  the  arsenious  sulphide  waa 
dissqlved  as  sujiph&rsenite  of  sodium,  AgS^3NaS,  in  which 
the  Bulphur  ratio  is  3  :  3,  we  hâve  evidently  .925  of  sulphide 
of  arsenic  derived  from  the. sulphide  of  spdium  in  the  water, 
leaving  only  .185  to  be  formed  by  the  sulphide  of  hydrogen. 
Since,  ho\Vever,  the  water  contains  large  proportions  alike  of 
the  chlorides  of  sodium,  calcium,  and  magnésium,  we  may 
suppose  that  there  ia  a  partition  of  bases,  so  that  portions  both 
of  alkaline  and  earthy  sulphides  may  be  présent.  The  excesf 
of  magnesian  chloride  would  in  any  case  produce  the  complète 
décomposition,  observed  in  boiling,  into  niagnesia  and  sul- 
phuretted  hydrogen. 

Two  questions  then  suggW  themselves  in  the  analysis  of 
this  wateif;  the  first  as  to  the  relative  proportions  of  sulphide 
of  hydrogen' and  the  monbsulphides  of  fixed  bases,  and  the 

\  second  as  to  thé  base  or/bases  of  thèse  fixed  sulphides.  To 
résolve  the  first  que8tion,/the  following  method  suggests  itself  ;_ 
add  ^0  one  measured  portion  of  the  water,  at  the  spring,  an 
acid  solution  of  terch^oride  of  arsenic,  by  which  the  whole 
amount  of  sulphide  in  the  water  may  be  determined.  To 
another  portion  add  /a,  neutral  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc  or 
protochloride  of  irori,  ^hich  jyill  precipitate  the  sulphur  of 
the  fixed  sulphides  only,  liberating  the  sulphide  of  hydrogen. 

I  Having  removed  this  by  boiling,  or  by  filtration,  the  insoluble 
metallic  sulphide  might  be  jtreated  with  a  mixture  of  a  solution 
of  terchlorider  of  arsenic  and  hydrochloric  acid,  by  which  means 
its  sulphur  wouH  ;  be  obtained  as  sulphide  of  arsenic,  whose 
weight,  as  compared  with  that  from  the  former  difterjoinatipn, 
would  show  the  quantities  both  of  fixed  aiâ|  volatile  sul|)hide 
in  the  water.  In  coùnection  with  this,  a  dettoninatipn  of  thç 
sol  vent  power  of  tha  recède  water  for  tersulpliide  of  ajsenioUf 
would  aèbrd  the  means  of  solving  the  second  question. 

For  the  analysis  of  the  Bothwell  water,  the  sulphate  of  lime 

being  determined  by  the  amount  of  sulphuric  acid,  the  chlorides 

'  yere  calcu1atfld.from  thn  qnatititiflB  of  Jiaafla  présent,  the  buI- 


IX.] 


; 


CHEMISTRY  OF  NATURAL  WATERS. 


163' 


ph'ur  corresponding  to  the  diasolved  sulphide  of  arsenic  beinir 
lor  i,U[}0  parts  of  the  water,  as  follows  :  —  . 


Chloride  of  sodium  . 
Xhloride  of  potassium  , 

Chloride  of  calcium 
Chloride  of  magnésium 
Sul^hat^oflirae      . 
SuljAide  of  sodium 
Sulphide  of  hydrogen 


14.4460 

.3350 

8.1830 

6.r950 

8.0SI0 

.8797  ) 

.0767  { 


=.4600  HS. 


S  ,  ■  "  27.7734 

^atei^  like  tJùs  of  BothweU  are  not  unfi^quently  met  with  in 

the  bonngs  m  the  adjacent  région,  especiaUy  in  thos^Tn^^  ° 

Men  where  m  a  weU  at  Petrolia.  at  a  depth  of  471  feefw 

he  surface,  artd  171  feet  from  thesunxmit  of  the  cinÎerZ 

Ime,  which  dxssolved  sulphide  of  «rsenic,  and  gaTe  a  Xt 
color  wxth  nitroprusside  of  sodium,  but  ;as  less^^tlgly  S 

Im^l:"!  *'^  ''  'f^*'"^"-      ^**«-  apparentlSr 

andTat  of  ctth  ""'^  1°  ''"^  "^"^  ofBothwell,  Petrolia, 
Ir  ha  tl?  f  "^  ""'"'r^^  ^'^y  ^^  §  62,  it  ^ould  ap: 
a^  ,-!;ï  '"'*''*  °''"''  ^'^«"^'^  ^^'  Comiferous  limestonr 

he  "Ji^  "'C  '^^  :î  *^0--<laga  or  saliferous  format"  n^' 
tùe  région     The  great  density  of  that  of  Chatham  whîch  mnrK 

rrro^\;?""^n'  ^'T  ^*  "^  ^  ^«-«'^  ^™^*  '^"^^ 

tùe  r«sult  of  the  evaporation  of  the  waters  of  an  ancient  sea. 


~J     ■ 


m 


164 


^«OSITY  OF  BOCKS. 


[IX. 


i 


,     APPENDIX. 


ON   THE   P0R08ITT   OF   BOCKS. 


[From  the  Report  df  the  Oeological  Burvey  of  Canada  for  1863-60,  pagA  S81  - 

AlL" rocks  are  more  or  less  porous,  and  mqst  anciystallinfe 'sedi- 
mentory  ones  poaeess  this  character  tô  a.  very  considérable  degree. 
Such  rocks  when  taken  from  j^he  quarries  are  more  or  l^ss  com- 
pletely  saturated  with  water,  from  which,  indeed,  they  hâve  never 
been  free  since  the  tinie  of  their  formation.  Thia  water  they  gradu- 
ally  lo8e  when  exposed  lo  the  air,  And,  as  is  well  known  in  the  case 
of  many  building-'stones,  become  much  barder  than  before.  The 
porosity  of  rociks  is  of  considérable  importance  in  relation  to  their 
value  as  building  materials.  The  open  spaces  betweeji  the  partîcles 
diminish  the  cohésion  c^flte  mato^and,  in  addition  to  this,  the  water 
held  in  the  ptfres  of  a^^cK,  when  çxposed  to  cold,  tends,  by  its  ex- 
pansion in  freezing,,t6  disintegrate  the  mass,  and  cause  it  to  cnunble, 
a  considération  of  much  importance  in  a  cold  climate.  Other  thinga 
being  eqùal,  it  may  probably  be  said  that  the  \»lue  of  a  stone  for 
building  purposes  is  inversely  as  its  porosity  or  absorbing  power. 

The  study  of  the  porosity  of  rocks  is,  moreover,  of  much  interest 
from  a  geological  point  of  view.  As  I  hâve  elsewhere  endeavored 
to  show  {ante,  pages  103  and  163),  the  origin  of  most  of  the  ^^uriated 
saline  springs,  is  to  be  sought  in  old  sea-waters  and  bittems  impris- 
oned  in  ancient  sëdimentary  strata,  wliich  must  now  hold  in  their 

portion  to 
s  hère 
above^ 


pores  an  $mount  of  water  bearing  a  consid 
the  entire  vohime  of  the  présent  océan, 
given  were  made  in  X1|M,  with  référence 
considérations. 

The  method  of  investigation  was  as  follôws 
ments  of  the  rocks  —  generally  &om  twenty  ta  forty  grammes  in 
weight  —  were  selected^  and  freed  from  scales  or  loose  grains,  wliich 
might,  hy  fallingoff  during  the  experiment,  vitiate  the  résulta, 
'hçse  spécimens  were  carefully  dried  at  about  200°  F.,  till  they 
•  lose^eight  ;  most  of  them  had,  however,  been  long  pre- 
^•in  a  dry  room,  and  were  found  to  be  nearly  free  from  moist- 

The  wMH^Q^theêe  having  been  determined,  they  were  pluced 

i,with.  their  loi^r  portions  in  water,  and  allowed  to  remain  for  some 
houra,  aftCT  wMch  Jhej  were  cov  water,  and  placed  under 


broken  frag- 


•^^^iiJhi^'i^,'»  ^f^  * 


V_,_^:=^^        î»*4l      J.  -»  ,        Iftt     ^*W,V*'<«^'î       ''^  '.      '       '      t.      *V-'t.fc^«*'.S?»'#«A       ^'àf 


-"W' 


/ 


l<>  « 


,IX] 


P0R08ITY  OP   ROCKS. 


165 

|n.ol  air  waa  remove<l.  The  exhau«tion  of  the  receiver  3 
31  imea  repe«te<l.  at  interv.U«.  until  the  portions  otZkZZ 
aB  hearly  aa  possible  -8atumte<l.and  bubbles  ceased  to  ^pe  on 
further  exhaustioà.  They  we.^  the%  n,move<l.  carefauTî^p^ï 
z"  Ur      T^hTS.r^  ri"  weighed,-,fi™t'ia  air,  aid^h"^ 

^l'^olr^îT'^J'  ^'^'^  °^  *'"''  "^  °'  *^«  *PP««»t  «Pacific  gravity 
* -^ j£ \c»mpared  wuh  watef  as  unity.  .  «™viiy, 

III    ÎÎr  ;^'''^"  ^r'"'^ -f  the  particles;  or  n.al  spécifie  g^vity. 

IV.  The  weight  of  wat^r  absorbed  by  100  parts  by  weight  of  the  n^fc    ». 

W^mmm 

or  the  water  ab^orbed  b^rof  f^  1  T  °^  '^^  ''''^^' 

weight  r^  .  ^  '^^  "^  °^'  t^^e  absorption  by 

a  =  the  weight  of  the  dry  rock. 

S^  the  weight  of  water  which  the  rock  can  absbrb. 

c  =  the  loss  of  weight.  in  water,  of  the  saturated  r^lc. 

We  hâve  tht-n  the -follcwing  équations  :  _ 

^'^^i^yXZrLZ:^!:.'^'^^^^^^  or  ^isi^ifio 

'  ^itck.'"'  ''  '  ^  ^"^'™'  "^  ***^'  *^'^  ^y  100  volumes  of  the 
"  oîthl'l^k'^^''*''*  °'^*«'  "^'l-ï  ^TlOO  parts  by  weight 


II. 
III. 
IV. 


La  aCr:-*^  ^"^  cor^sponding  to.the  four  eq.u^ 

:^^f^-^I^P^ia.«^  to^h.  BHtisb  Ho«^ 


«mnnong,  In  18OT,%  Messrs.  Barry.  Delabeche,  and  Smith,  made  wiS 


,lK:îr'^.t#ii>îiffï>*    * 


/ 


166  POEOSITY  OF  ROCKS.  [IX. 

TABLE  OP  THE  DEN8ITY   AND   P0R08ITT   OP  VABI0U8   ROCKS. 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

1 

Sandstone,  Pôtsdain^  —  hard  and  white 

2.607 

2.644 

1.89 

0.50 

2 

Saiidstone,  Potsdam,  —  hard  and  white 

2.660 

2.638 

•2.72 

1.06 

3 

Sandstone,  Potsdam,  —  hard  and  white 

2.563 

2.633 

2.26 

0.88 

4 

Sandstone,  Potsdam,  —  hard  and  white 

2.557 

2.618 

2.47 

0.96 

5 

Sandstone,  Potsdam,  with  Scolithus  . 

2.453 

2.636 

6.94 

2.83 

6 

Sandstone,  Potsdam 

2.432 

2.641 

7.-90 

3.25 

7 

Sandstone,  Potsdam,  with  Lincula    . 

2.366 

2.611 

9f.35 

3.96 

8 

Sandstone,  Sillery,-Vgreen,  argillaceons 

2.719 

2.796 

2.73 

1.00 

9 

Sandstone,  Sillery,—green,  argillaceons 

2.642 

2.719 

2.85 

1.08 

10 

Sandstone,  Médina,  —  red,  argillaceons 

2.529 

2.767 

8.37 

3.31 

11 

Sandstone,  Médina,) — red,  argillaceons 

2.481 

2.776 

10.06 

4.04 

12 

Sandstone,  Devoniati,  —  fine,  gray    . 

2.110 

2.646 

20.24 

9.59 

13 

Sandstone,  Devonian,  —  fine,  gray    , 

2.099 

2.645 

20.62 

9.85 

U 

Sandstone,  Devonian,  —  finie,  gi-ay    . 

2.086 

2.649 

21.27 

10.22 

15 

Shale,  Sillery,  —  red,  argillaceons     . 

,2.674 

2.784 

3.96 

1.49 

16 

Shale,  Hndson  River,  —  black,  aigil'ous 

2.529 

2.747 

7.94 

3.14 

17 

Shale,  Utica,  —  pyroschist .... 

2.317 

2.834 

0.75 

0.32 

18 

Shale,  Utica,  —  pyroschist  .... 

2.373 

2.396 

0.93 

0.39 

19 

Shale,  Utica, ^pyroschist  .... 

2.370 

2.421 

2.10 

0.88 

20 

Limestone,  Trenton, — black,  compact 

2.706 

2.714 

0.30 

0.11 

21 

Limestone,  Trenton, — gray,  compact 

2.707 

2.716 

0.32 

0.11 

22 

Limestone,  Trepton, — gray,  crystalline 

2.643 

2.673 

1.16 

0.44 

23 

Limestone,  Trenton, — gray,  crj'stalline'  2.671 

2.708 

1.34 

0.50 

24 

Limestone,  Trenton, — gray,  crystalline 

2.638 

2.684 

1.70 

0.65 

25 

Dolomite,  Niagara, — gray,  crystalline 

2.637 

2.679 

5.27 

2.08 

26 

Dolomite,  Calciferous     .     .     .     .     . 

2.772 

2.833 

2.15 

0.78 

27 

Dolomite,  Calciferous     .     . 

2.73? 

2.838 

3.53 

1.28 

28 

Dolomite,  Calciferous     .     . 

2.635 

2.822 

6.61 

2.51 

29 

Dolomite,  Calciferous     .     . 

2.601 

2.832 

7.22 

2.77 

30 

Dolomite,  Guelph.     .     .     . 

2.527 

2.829 

10.60 

4.19 

31 

Dolomite,  Guelph.     .     .     . 

2.628 

2.810 

10.04 

3.97 

32 

Dolomite,  Onondaga .     .     . 

2.517 

2.825 

10.92 

4.33 

33 

Dolomite,  Chazy,  argillaccous 

2.442 

2.824 

13.55 

6.55 

34 

Dolomite,  Chazy,  ai^llaceous 

2.717 

2.823 

8.75 

1.39 

35 

Dolomite,  Chazy,  argillaceons  . 

2.693 

2.825 

4.69 

1.73 

36 

Dolomite,  Chazy,  argillaceons  . 

2.59a 

2.891 

10.12 

3.89 

37 

Limestone,  Tertiary  (Caen,  France)   . 

1.859 

2.637 

29.49 

16.85 

38 

Limestone,  Tertiary  (Caen,  France)  . 

1.860 

2.644 

26.93 

14.48 

sa 

Limestone,  Tertiary  (Caen,  France)  . 

1.839    2.611 

29.64 

16.06 

référence  to  the  choice  of  bnilding-stones  for  the  Honses  of  Parliament. 
They  made  ase  of  blocks  of  an  inch  cnbe,  vhich  were  flrst  soaked  in  water 
and  then  placed  under  tha  vacanm  of  an  air-pump,  as  in  my  own  expéri- 
menta. The  foUowing  ezamplA  are  taken  from  a  table  in  the  above  re- 
port, giving  the  résulta  for  thirty-six  spécimens  of  building-stones.  The 
value  of  a;  in  III.,  or  the  absorption  of  water  for  100  volumes  of  rock,  as 
^^etemrtned  by  them,lr  u  foUoirâ TTOT^ifiw  nticiouB  lîmé8f^é8,^S,  8.5, 


"i  f  t>"'  -^ 


^j     t  r    T-ï;«r 


/ 


IX.] 


POBosiry  OF  bocks. 


167 


'  pure  limestones  «f  Z  t!  T    /  ^  "icludiuy,  as  will  be  seen, 

Hudaon  River  group  and  the  compact  pyroscliists  oîihl  m 
formation.    I  have^riven  in  Nf«  t9  ii      Yf°7"«^  o*  the  Utica 
three  specimenfl  of  S  fin  ^V^"^  H  déterminations  with 

Ohio  Tt!T     °^  *,^«  g^y  *°d  veiy  porous  sandatone  from 

b^ding    nTsT^'^TS  ^-^^^--«  %-'  «»d  -uch  usedX^ 
uuuing.    JN 08. 37, 38,  and  39  are  three  spécimens  of  the  well-kn,.v 

impossible  to  remove  aU  LlVl    °' *^«  ^'-P^nP.  without  which|it  ù. 

13.6  ;  and  a  n,ag„esian  Hmestone  oT/ôïl'afoî  27^":;  '^'T'^T'^^ 
Porosity  of  Rocks,  Delesse,  BulL  Sol  oJ^lT^Jt^i  xS'S?^'''' 


V 


f^-^    ï^  *BKlVÎjck..    •U^là-iiïi^i.i.ii*.    i -i 


^    c      ^  i    J.JM       ^    ' 


X.' 


ON    PETROLEUM,    ASPHALT,    PYRO- 

SCHISTS,    AND   GOAL. 

\ 

In  the  foUowing  paper  on  the  OU-bearing  Limestone  of  Chicago,  read  before  the 
American  Association  for  the  Âdvancement  of  Science,  in  1870,  and  publisbied  in  the 
American  Journal  of  Science  for  June,  1871,  will  be  found  a  suinmary  of  my  concla- 
siona  on  the  geological  history  of  petroleum.  To  it  are  appeuded  extractu  troia  au 
earlier  paper  in  the  same  Journal  for  Harch,  1863,  On  Bitumens  and  Pyroschists,  aud 
Bome  later  observations  by  Dawson  and  myself  on  the  vegetable  Ussues  forming  coal. 
The  reader  is  aiso  referred  in  connection  with  petroleum  to  my  paper  on  the  Oeology 
of  Southwestem  Ontario,  in  the  sarae  Journal  for  November,  1868,  and  to  Notes 
on  the  Oil-Wells  of  Terre  Haute,  Indiana,  in  that  for  November,  1871. 

Whbn,  in  1861,*  I  first  published  mj  views  on  the  petro- 
leum of  the  great  American  palseozoic  basin,  I  expressed  the 
opinion  that  the  true  source  of  it  was  to  be  looked  for  in  cer- 
tain limestone  formations  which  had  long  been  known  to  be 
oleiferous.  I  referred  to  the  early  observations  of  Eaton  and 
Hall  on  the  petroleum  of  the  Niagara  limestone,  to  munerous 
instances  of  the  occurrence  of  this  substance  in  the  Trenton 
and  Comiferous  formations,  and,  in  Gaspë,  in  limestpnes  of 
Lower  Helderberg  âge.  "Subsequently,  in  this  Journal  for 
March,  1863,  and  in  the  Geology  of  Canada,  I  insisted  still 
further  upon  the  oleiferous  character  of  the  Comiferous  lime- 
stone in  southwestem  Ontario,  which  appears  to  be  the  source 
of  the  petroleum  found  in  that  région,  I  may  hère  be  permit- 
ted  to  recapitulate  some  of  my  reasons  fo?  concluding  that 
petroleum  is  indigenous  to  thèse  limestones,  and  for  rejecting 
the  contrary  opinion,  beld  by  some  geologists,  that  its  occur- 
rence in  them  is  due  to  infiltration,  and  that  its  origin  is  to  be 
sought  in  an  unexplained  process  of  distillation  from  pyro- 
schists or  so-called  bituminous  shales.     Thèse  occur  at  three 


'*«; 


X.]  THE  OIL-BEAKLVG  LIMESTONE  OF  CHICAGO.         169 

K^  Cormfei»u8  bmestone  by  tLe  Marcellus  stote 
Fmt,  thèse  various  pyroschists  <lo  not   excent  T  „»  • 

wUch  Ju'llTr  "i'"-"^*™-    The  dist  Jtion  U  r 

wnetlier  exposed  at  the  surface  or  brought  up  by  borines  fron 
Deen  submitted  to  the^emperature  required  for  the  Renemtion 

ttT;  K  7      ''  undergoing  a  charring  process  by  which 

their  brown  color  is  changed  to  black.     In  other  woxl  ^  «e 

dS£::.  '^^^  °^*  ^^'  ^"^'^«^-^  *^«  P--  of  destruSr 

«tn!»'"^'  *!""  ^""^««°«  i°  Which  the  oil  occura  in  the  lime- 

auced  mto  thtfee  rocks  by  distiUation.     The  onlv  r.^h.\.^ 

"  8 


4 


^•;; 


*Ùîill.^V'iS.'4^*«.  -i 


a-j'  '^>!±6   ^  j^  if 


170 


THE   OIL-BEAKING  LIMESTONE   OF  CHICAGO. 


[X. 


leum  of  the  Silurian  and  Lower  Devonian  limestones  must 
hâve  been  derived  froi^  the  Utica  slate  beneatL  This  rock, 
however,  is  unaltered,  and  moreover,  the  intermediate  sand- 
stones  and  shales  of  the  Loraine,  Médina,  and  Clinton  forma- 
tions are  destitute  of  petroleum,  Vhich  must,  on  this  hypothe- 
sis,  hâve  passed^  through  ail  thèse  strata  to  condense  in  the 
Kiagarà  and  Corniferous  limestones.  More  than  this,  the 
Trenton  limestône,  which,  on  Lake  Huron  and  elsewhere,  has 
,  y ielded  considérable  quantities  of  petroleum,  has  no  pyroschists 
beneath  it,  but  on  Lake  Huron  rests  on  ancient  crystalline 
rocks,  with  the  intervention  only  of  a  sandstone  devoid  of 
organic  or  carbouaceous  matter.  ïhe  rock-formations  holding 
petroleuin  are  not  only  separated  from  each  other  by  great 
thicknesses  of  porous  strata  destitute  of  it,  but  the  distribution 
of  this  substance  ia  still  further  localized,  as  I  many  years  since 
pointed  out.  The  petroleum  is,  in  fact,  in  many  cases,  conflned 
to  certain  bands  or  layers  in  the  limestône,  in  which  it  fills  the 
pores  and  the  cavities  of  fossil  sheUs  and  corals,  while  other 
portions  of  the  limestône,  above,  below,  and  in  the  prolon- 
gation of  the  same  stratum,  although  equally  porous,  contain 
no  petroleum,  From  aU  thèse  facta  the  only  reasonable  con- 
clusion seems  to  me  to  be  that  the  petroleum,  or  rather  the 
materials  from  which  it  has  been  formed,  existed  in  thèse  lime- 
stône rocks  from  the  time  of  their  first  déposition.  The  view 
which  I  put  forward  in  1861,  that  petroleum  and  similar  bitu- 
mens  hâve  resulted  from  a  peculiar  "  transformation  of  vegeta- 
ble  matters,  or  in  some  cases  of  animal  tissues  analogous  to 
thèse  in  composition,"  has  received  additional  support  from  the 
observations  of  Lesley  *  in  West  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  and 
from  the  more  récent  ones  ôf  Peckham.t 

The  objections  to  this  view  of  the  origin  and  geologicaL rela- 
tions of  petrftleum  hâve  been  for  the  most  part  founded  on 
incorrect  notions  of  the  geological  structure  of  southwestem 
Ontario,  which  has  afforded  me  peculiar  fecilities  for  studying 

♦  Rep.  Geol.  Canada,  1866,  240  ;  and  Proo.  Amer.  Philos.  Soc.,  X.  33, 
187. 
^ jLlbii>  X  ii5 _.^-_- -. 


m    -^ 


'/  "X- 


i] 


THE  OIL-BEAEING  LIMESTONE   OF  CHICAGO. 


171 


cnell  that  the  source  of  the  petroleum  is  to  be  soucht  in  fï^ 
Devoman  pyroschists.     I  however  showed  in  18^       ^ 

denuded  anticlinals  whei^  th« J      'f «^fsee  slates,  but  along 
the  sV-ior  .C  «^a  to  «t*  ";e  P°«»  and  th,  fWea  in 

w.eb  a.:r::.^roTrrj^^^^^^^       t- 

the  MalZT^dTh^  P    ^^  ^'f'"^'  ^^^«  ^''"^  «bserved  in 

ittreeiius  and  the  Genesee  slates  of  New  York      Tl,.~.  • 
however,  reason  to  believe  a«  T  Ka^     ^^ew  ïorJc.     There  is, 

that  n,uch  of  the  peVroleum  of  p         ^  ^'^''*'^  °"*' 

ine  petroleum  of  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  the 

^AmencanJoiimalof  Science  m.  Xi,Vi^<Mft..«j«     ^„ 

Ï8^  pp.  2«  -  250.  *  ''         *•  ^^  ♦  »Bâ  Report  Geot  Ctoid^ 


t*      J 


172  THE   OIL-BEARING  LIMESTONE  OF   CHICAGO.  [X. 

adjacent  régions  is  indigenous  to  certain  sandstone  strata  in 
the  Devonian  and  Carbonifèrous  rocks.* 

At  the  *  meeting  of  tl»"^ American  Assolciation  for  the  Ad- 
vance^ient  of  Science  at  Chicago,  in  August,  1868,  in  a  «dis- 
cussion* which  followed  the  reading  of  a  paper  by  myself  on 
the  Geology  of  Ontario,t  it  was  contended  ,that,  although  the 
varions  limestones  which  hâve  been  mentioued  are  truly  oleifer- 
ous,  the  quantity  of  petroleum  which  they  contain  is  too  incon- 
siderable  to  account  for,  the  great  supplies  fumished  by  oU-pro- 
ducing  districts,  like  that  of  Ontario,  for  example.  This  opinion 
being  contrary  to  that  which  I  had  always  entertained,  I  re- 
solved  to  submit  to  examinatiou  the  well-known  oil-bearing 
limestohe  of  Chicago. 

This  limestone,  the  quarries  of  which  are  in  thé  immédiate 
vicinity  of  the  city,  is  filled  laàth  petroleum,  so  that  blocks  of  it 
which  hâve  been  iised  in  buildings  are  discolored  by  the  exuda- 
tion  of  this  substance,  which,  mîhgled  with  dust,  forms  a  tarry 
coating  upon  the  exposed  surfaces.  The  thickness  of  the  oil- 
bearing  beds, wwhich  are  massive  and  horizontal,  is,  according 
to  Professor  W orthen,  from  thirty-five  to  forty  feet,  and  they 
occupy  a  position  about  midway  in  the  Niagara  formation, 
wliich  has  in  this  région  a  thickness  of  from  200  to  250  feet. 
As  exposed  in  the  quarry,  the  whole  rock  seems  pretty  uniformly 
saturated  with  petroleum,  which  exudes  from  the  natural  joints 
and  the  fractured  surfaces,  and  covers  small  pools  of  water  in 
the  dépressions  of  the  quarry.  I  selected  numerous  spécimens 
of  the  rocks  from  différent  points  andat  variouis  levels,  with  a 
view  of  gettjng  an  average  sample,  although  it  was  évident  that 
they  had  already  lost  a  porti«i  of  theur  original  Content  of 
petroleum.  .  After  lying  for  more  than  a  year  in  my  laboratory 
they  were  submitted  to  chemical  examination.  The  rock, 
though  porous  and  discolored  by  petroleum,  is,  when  freed 
from  this  substance,  a  nearly  white,  granular,  crystalline,  and 
very  pure  dolomite,  yielding  54.6  per  cent  of  carbonate  of  lime. 

Two  soparate  portions,  each  made  up  of  fragmenta  obtained 

Report  QeoL  Canada,  1866,  p.  240. 


P- 


t  American  Journal  of  Scienc»  (2),  XLVI.  855. 


-)' 


X-]         THE  on-BEARiNG  LiMESTONE  OP  Chicago!       173 
by  breaking  up  some  pou^ds  of  the  spécimens  aboyé  mentioned 
ax.d  supposed  to  rep:.sent  an  average  of  the  rock  exposed  in 

Of  thèse  two  portions,  respectiyely,  100  and  138  gmmmes  were 
d^olved  m  warm  dilate  hydrochloric  acid^   The^^rls7due 

with  ether,  m  vhich  it  was  readily  soluble  with  the  exception 
of  a  sniall  resxdue.     This.  in  one  of  the  samples.  Cfound 
equal  to  40  per  cent,  of  which  .13  was  volatilized  by  hl  w"  th 
^e  production  of  a  combustible  vapor  having  a  Ltrol 
he  x^mainder  was  silicious.     The  brown  etherefl  solu^ons  weL' 

100  C,,  weighed,  in  the  twô  e^periments,  equal  to  1.570  and 
1505  per  cent  of  the  rock,  or  a  mean  of  1^.  Jt  ^«s  a  visc^d 
.^ddish-brown  oil,  which,  though  deprifS^its  mo^voS 
portions,  stm  retained  somewhat  of  the  odor  of  petr^  el 
which  is  so  marked  in  the  n,ck.  Its  spécifie  gmvity  as  deter^ 
mmed  by  that  of  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  wa^r  in  ;h  ch   he 

eacn.     Aaking  the  minimum  thickness  of  fK,-rf^  fi    J'  fe»"on3 
signed  by  Mr  Worfhfin  +«  fi,      ™^^  °*  thirty-five  feet,  as- 
e>    >^  ujr  lur.  wortùen  to  the  oïl-bearinc  rock  af  rh;^„ 

shaU  hâve  in  *ach  square  mile  of  it  7  74^7  A      T'  ""' 


round  r.nn,bei;flo,xn  IlnZ        "  '''"^^  ^^^'  ^'  ^^ 
-^"^^^  ^''^''  "^^  **^^  q^rter  nûIKons  of  barrejs  of 


'■'ifS'   jl% 


^.^a^^-^^     .A.Uy'^i^'— "^* 


L  ^^  *  J    *  W 


t  ^X  '*.W 


174 


THE  0II>BEARINO  LIMESTONE  OF  CHICAGO. 


[X. 


petroIeum.  The  total  produce  of  the  great  Pennsylvania  oil- 
region  for  the  ten  yeara  fçom  1860  to  1870  is  estimated  at 
twentyneight  millions  ôt  barrels  of  petroleum,  or  less  thari 
would  be  contained  in  four  square  miles  of  the  oil-bearing 
limestone  foitnation  of  Chicago. 

It  is  nbt  hère  the  place  to  insist  upon  the  geological  condi- 
tions which  favor  the  libération  of  a  portion  of  the  oil  from  such 
rocks,  and  its  accumulation  in  fissures  along  certain  anticlinal 
lines  in  the  broken  and  uplifted  strata.  Thèse  points  in  the 
geological  history  of  petroleum  were  shown  by.  me  in  my  first 
publications  on  the  su^ject  in  March  and  July,  1861,  referred 
to  on  the  riext  page,  and  independently,  about  the  same  time, 
byTrofessor  K  B.  Anârews  in  this  Journal  for  July,  1861.* 

The  proportion  of  petroleum  in  the  rock  of  Chicago  may  be 
exceptionally  large,  but  the  oleiferous  character  of  great  thick- 
ness  of  rock  in  other  régions  is  well  established,  and  it  will 
be  seen  from  the  above  calculations  that  a  very  small  propor- 
tion of  the  oil  thus  distributed  would,  when  accumulated  alonsr 
'-'nnes  of  uplift  in  the  strata,  be  more  than  adéquate  to  the  sup- 
ply  of  ail  the  petroleum  wells  known  in  the  régions  where 
thèse  oil-bearing  rocks  are  found.  With  such  sources  exist- 
ing  ready  formted  in  the  earth's  crust,  it  seems  to  me,  to  say  the 
least,  unphilosophical  to  search  elsewhere  for  the  origin  of 
petroleum,  and  to  imagine  it  to  be  derived  by  some  unex- 
plained  process  from  rocks  which  are  destitute  of  the  sub- 
stance. 

*  American  Journal  of  Science  (2),  3tXXII.  85.  See  aiso  papers  on  the 
subject  by  Andrews  and  by  Professor  Evans,  Ibid.  (2),  XL.  33,  334  ;  and  one 
by  the  author  (2),  XXXV.  170  ;  also  Report  Geological  Survey  of  Canada, 
1866,  pp.  266,  267. 


-^iSstya 


X.] 


BITUMENS  AND  PYEOSCHISTa 


175 


APPENDIX. 

ON  BITUMENS  AND  PYR080HIST8. 


(Mffl-Mea.)  *;; 

entitled  Note»  on  the  Hisï^omt-le"-  ■»  "t^ë  cLl,?'^'T*  '°  *°  """"  ^^'' 
reprinted  in  the  Chemical  Newg  «nd  a^^n  fn   »      !f^''"  Naturaliat  for  July,  1861 
for  1862.    I  h«l  for  some  tl.ne lUTilî^i^ltiS'th  V^'  ""'""""'°  ^""""'«"^ 
of  the  West  was  not,  as  Va»  SnemHy  th^^h^  tT^,^'  '"l  '^"""'  »'*''<'  IKîtn,Ieum 
Bcbista,  but  in  the  nnderlyJ  ZSn.Z  ^      ^  """"*  '°  ""«  ''«^"n'"»  ry«>- 

to  be  noticed     It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  chemical  cornoosition 
j'UTOcaroons  ùaving,  for  the  mo8t  part,^he  formula  P  H         Ti,» 


^:;iii':^l 


\m> 


176 


BITUMENS 


AND 


PYR0SCHIST8. 


[X. 


one  from  Bastennes  gave  C„H„0„,  whilo  that»  frôm  near  Naples 
may  be  represented  by  C^rf'iMO^  and  an  asphalt  from  Mexico  gave^ 
to  Regnault  C„H„0,.     The  an^Jilyaes  of  Johnstqji  shows  that  guaya- 
quillite  and  berengelite  do  not  diflfer  greatly  from  thèse  in  tl|g  pro- 
portions of  Carbon  and  hydrogen.     Passing  from  the  «âphalts  to 


idrialine,  the  résulta  of  whose  analysis  are  represented  Vy>  i 
hâve  a  hydrocaçbon  with  a  minimum  of  hydrogen.,  It^  Well  in 
*thi8  place  to  compare  the  above  results  with  the  formula^^^ij^Oj^, 
which  ia  deduced  from  Wetherell's  analysis  of  the  so-caftecfiUbertite 
or  Albert  coal.  A  "lignite  passing  into  minerai  resiif^gave  to 
Regnault  C^H„0,.,,  and  flve  analyses  of  bituminous  coal  by  the 


0^  to  C^HjaO,.,,  while  the 


mean 


sanie  chemist  yield  ffom  C„H,0, 
composition  deduced  by  Johnslon  from  several  analyses  of  coal  was 
C„H„  with  from  0,  to  0^.  From  tliese  results  it  will  be  seen  that 
some  asphalta  âpproach  bituminous  coala  in  compoaition.  That  of 
Naples,  which  ia  completely  fusible  at  l^^Jp.,  contains  lésa  hydro- 
gen and  more  oxygen  than  the  albertite,  vraîle'  the  idrialine  ia  near 
in  composition  to  certain  bituminous  côals,  ^hich  are  thus  almost 
isomeric  with  some  fusible  bitumons  ;  so  that  it  ia  easy  to  conceive 
the  same  organic  matters  giving  rise  either  to  coal  or  ta  asphalt, 
even  without  losing  their  structure.  Such  appears  to  be  the  «ase  in 
the  tertiary  atrata  of  Trinidad  and  Venezuela,  the  bituraen  of  which, 
from  Mr.  WaU's  résearches,  aeems  to  hâve  orisen  from  "a  spécial 
mineralization  of  «vegetable  remains  in  certain  strata,  which  has 
resulted  in  the  production  of  bitumen,  inatead  of  coal  or  lignite." 
This  conversion,  according  to  him,  "i^  not  attributable  to  beat, 
nor  of  the  nature  of  a  distillation,  but  is  due  to  chemical  réactions 
at  the  ordinary  température,  and  under  the  normal  conditions  of 
climate."  Mr.  Wall  also  describes  portions  of  wood  from  thèse 
deposits,  which  hâve  been  partially  converted  into  bitumen,  and 

simply  the  results  of  analysis,  without  attempting  to  flx  the  constitution  of 
the  matters  in  question. 

In  the  notation  employed,  H  =  1,  C  =  6,  and  0  =  8.  As  it  is  not  generally 
used  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science,  I  hâve  not  thought  necessâry  to 
adopt,'  in  this  paper,  the  double  équivalent  of  the  latter  éléments,  now  em- 
ployed by  80  many  chemists.  I  may,  however,  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
I  was,  I  believe,  the  first  to  propose  such  a  change,  when,  in  18^,  I  asserted 
that  the  even  coefficients  of  oxygen,  snlphur,  and  carbon  in  ordinary  for- 
mulas seem  to  fumish  a  conclusive  reason  for  doubling  thèir  équivalents,  or 
for  dividing  those  of  hydrogen,  chlorine,  nitrogen,  and  the  metals,  according 
as  four  volumes  or  two  volumes  are  taken  as  the  équivalent.  (Theory  of 
Chemical  Changes,  Am.  Jour,  of  Science  (2),  XV.  p.  230.    [Reprinted  as 


/•■■  ■ 


•      A 


X.] 


BITUMEVS  AND  PYRÔsCHISTS. 


177 

bitummous  coals,  to  C„H.     whirh  ,.™"°^  *"'*.**"'*'»«»«  of  n^ost 

the  hydrocarbons'  of  .u^^^U^it  or  to  C  T'T 't  '"™"''^  "' 
P«troIeum.     The  ren  «val  affZh  **    **'  ^^'^''^  représenta, 

pointed  out  ;  and  we  conceTe  that  ^^^  ^^ . 

given  nse  to  thia  conversion  bv  «  .J.^  "*  '"'^"^  ^=«««^8   , 

"u.y  often  hâve  beenTh?i/"^t'^"^^ 

onlinary  températures     AntîT  !        '^««''"P^^itions  going  on  It 

one  hand.  JT^Zmt^CZ^T'  ^""  '^^'''"'  °'^  *^« 
on  the  other,  repre^ent  fh/^^        !!         maximum  of  hydrogen, 

wI^r/tT^rsirn"  'r^';-P-^'^t««  cemin  rocks,  from 
oftendisseX  tXtouX't'w  ^  ""'  '™  «^  ^^^--  - 

vents  such  as  benzole     Tn  !,   k       ,   '  f    ""^  completely  by  sol- 
Hcorrectly  appi  e1  burVrïff      '  ''"'  ^'^  "  ^''^"^^^ons"  maj     * 
stances  like  coal  and  o!r^  u'^^PP^P'^*^^^  «iven  to  suli 

«ttle  or  no  bul:f  Ct^îyr^r  W«  «•^^^«*«'  -ti^h  contain 
bydrocarbons,  mo"  ";  le^^^^^ltbr  ^^^^^^^t^ -«"««on/ volatile 
or  Petroleum!  Anali  ^^  ^c^L^'r  ''''^^^^^-^  «sphalt 
distillation  of  lignite    Jat^S  '  ï'"'"^''"'"'  «^t^ined  by  the 

thet  'aituminous^appS'to  hJ''"  °^  ^°°^'  «*^  ^^-^^  '^'  «P^- 
«ehiste,  raises  a  felse  d^nln'^  r""'  '^'^' ^""^  combustible 
therefore  proposed   le  f  ^^       '  7^^P«T>et«ates  an   error.      I 

bitumino^  sL?t:ri:xi^rortL?s^^^^^^^ 

stance  which  appea^o  i  J^^f '**'  f  ^'"  ^^  ^"^'i"«  ^o  a  subi 
•Mn>carbona2rCt«^  '  ^^^'l  "'"'"'  T'"  '^  '="^'»''-*^b'«      " 


arï*!»,.^^«^^^^MÀÏ4A»  ,',.  •   (»  if^j,. 


,  ,u^ii))ij^:!v 


178  BlTUMENS  AND  PYR0SC1118TS.  '  [X. 

and  are  often,  like  coal,  employetl  as  valuatle  «o^rces  6f  volatile 
iiiyd%)carbon8,  although  like  it  they  contain  littl^  or  no  bitumon. 
They  Jfiiay  be  regarde»!  as  claya  or  marU,  holdings  in  a  state  of  in- 
timate'admixture,  a  variable  proportion  of  a  mattjer  approaching  to 
coal  in  itS  chemical  charactere.  Although  fmiuently  durk  brown  or 
black  in  color,  they  are  aometimés  light  brown  or  even  yellowi«h- 
gray,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Jurasaic  pyroschists  of  the  department 
of  the  Doubs,  and  those  of  lertiary  âge  neur  Clermont,  l)0th  in  France. 
Remarkable  exaniples  of  this  are  also  given  by  Professor  J.  D. 
Whitney  in  the  pyroschists  from  the  Utica  formation  in  lowa, 
which  were  yellowish-brown,  weathering  to  a  bliiish-ash  color. 
They,  however,  blackened  wh,en  exposed  to  beat,  buming  with  a 
brighl  flame,  and  contained  from  elevën  to  twenty  per  cent  of  com- 
bustible raatter.*  .  .  .  t'A  pyrolMîhist  of  the  Utica  .formation,  from 
CoUingwood  on  Lake  Huron,  examined  by  me,  gave  to  dilute  hydro- 
chloric  acid  from  fifty-three  to  fifty-eight  per  cent  of  carbonate  of 
lime,  besides  a  little  magiiesia  i^nd  oxide  of  iron.  The  insoluble 
residue  was  snuff-brown  in  color,  and,  whep  heated,  gave  off  a 
bituininous  odor.  When  ignited  in  a  clôôe  vessel,  it  lost  12.6  per 
cent  of  volatile  and  combustible  matters,  and  left  a  coal-black  resi- 
due,  which,  by  calcination  in  the  open  air,  lost  8.4  pér  cent  addi- 
tional,  iHaking  în  ail  21.9  percent  of  volatile  and  carbonaceous 
matters,  and  left  an  ash-gray  argillaceous  residué.  l'his  schist,^ 
however,  contained  but  a  very  small  amount  of  bitumen  ;  for,  on' 
treating  the  rendue  from  a  dilute  acid  with  boiling.bei»!ole,  there 
was  dissolved  about  1.0'^  per  cent  of  a  brown  bituminoup  matter.:^ 
The  residue,  when  heated,"  no  longer  evolved  the  odor  of  bitumen, 
but  rather  one  like  buriiing  lignite,  and  still  gave,  by  ignition  in 
a  cloe&Tessel,  11.8  pet  cent  of  volatile  and  inflammable  matters. 
When  boiled  with  a  solution  of  caustic  soda,  this  was  scarcely  dis- 
colored.  In  ite  iilsolubility,  therefore,  the  organic  matter  of  this 
rock  reseûibles  true  coal  rather  than  lignite.  Attempts  hâve  been 
made,  on  a  large  scale,  to  diptil  this  calcareous  schist  of  ColKng- 
wood,  which  was  found  to  yield  from.  3.0  to  5.0  per  cent  of  oily 
and  tarry  matter,  besides  combustible  gases  and  water. 
•  Overlying  the  Haf&ilton  formation  in  Ontario  are  ïound  black 
pyroscMits,  which  are  supposed  to  be  the  équivalent  of  the  (îenesee 
Blgitea  of  New  York.    A  spécimen  of  these^^from  Bosanquet  on  Lake 

•  For  numerons  analyses  of  pyroschists   from  this  geological  horizon, 
leè  a  note  appeiided  to  thia  paper  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science  (2), 
.  JLXXV.  IM.-.,.  ,„:- ^ ■■.__^ : 


..•■■■       ,  ^ 


-'\> .   "^^-^ 


ofe  -« 


c"î/f' ".|  ■■  ■ 


X.J 


BITOMENS  AUD  PTBOSCniSIS. 


179 

and  by  8ub«equent  calcination  11.6  additional.  e<,uàl  to  23  7   "  r 
cent  of  combustible  and  volatUe  eleinenb.     tL      .  •     ,         T"^ 

The  pyroschistB  of  Bosanquet  belong  to  the  Devonian  séries  and 

to^on   may  be  supposed  to  hâve  been  the^urce  of  the  oJS 
matter  which  ,s  intimately  niingled  with  the  earthy  base  of  theloT 

«^^T?!!   n     u  ■    .^^  Py«>8chi8ts  of  the  Utica  formation  (which 

^tohtes,  with  a  few  brachiopods  and  crustaceans.     No  traces  of 

'     th^rr/  ''°'*"''""  ""^  ^"°^"  t°  ^''^^  «i^ted  at  that  time  nor  do 

8thi8ts  of  mesozoïc  âge,  m  several  parts  of  Europe  contain  on  th. 
ntrary,  numerous  fossil  fishes.  f^m  the  soft  p^tof  which   or 

ïi^'  ^iZaSMÏrT  "'  T'"'  ""«'°'  ■*" 

Ihe  vanous  fermentations  of  which  sugar  is  susceptible 

tf  MftonJ^wTJj^;  r.^     ,  ^        oelhilo»,  or  nome  isomeric  hvdàte  " — 
«rbon^and  repr«,ented  by  the  formula  C..H„N.O,    I  had  already  pï 


n: 


,  S'    .    4=  -f-^t*^  i-'iJ.-^J* 


y     ,^ 


180 


ON  THE  ORIGIN   OF  COAL. 


IX. 


n 


BUggest  analogies  to  the  différent  transformations  of  organic  tissues 
which  hâve  resulted  in  the  formation  of  anthracite,  coal,  lignite, 
asphalt,  and  petrolemn,  together  vrith  carbunic  acid  and  gaseous 
hydrocarbons  as  accessory  products.    (See  note  on  page  182.) 

[The  conclusions  of  the  remaining  nine  pages  of  the  above  paper  are 
briefly  summed  Up  in  the  preceding  one  on  The  Oil-bearing  Lime- 
stones  of  Chicago.  As  a  supplément  to  the  remarks  on  the  origin 
of  coal  I  may  hère  make  some  extracts  from  a  paper  on  Spore- 
Cases  in  Coal,  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Dawson,  in  the  American  Journal  of 
Science  for  April,  1871,  including  also  a  note  by  myself.  Dawson 
has  there  shown  that  while  some  exceptional  beds  of  coal  are  to  a 
large  extent  made  up  of  spores  and  spore-cases,  probably  of  lepido- 
dendron,  it  is  by  no  means  true  that  thèse  are,  as  some.  hâve  con- 
jeetured,  the  principal  source  of  coaL     On  the  other  hand,  it  is  clear 

posed  to  rç^rd  bone-gelatine  as  an  analogous  nitryl,  CnHatNtOs;  which 
corresponds  to  one  équivalent  of  glucose  and  four  of  amnionia,  less  8  HO. 
Thèse  nitryls,  it  was  couceived,  might,  under  certain  conditions,  regenerate 
ammonia  and  a  hydrate  of  carbon.  I  also  adduced  évidence  that  in  a  case  of 
diabètes,  sugar  was  generated  at  the  expense  of  ingested  gélatine.  (American 
Journal  of  Science  (2),  V.  p.  75;  VI.  p.  259;  and  Sillinian's  Eléments  of 
Chemistry,  p.  517.  )  The  analytles  of  cartilage-gélatine,  or  chondrine,  iu  like 
manner  correspond  very  nearly  to  a  nitryl  formed  from  CuHaOti  (cane-sugar) 
and  three  équivalents  of  ammonia.  The  formula  thus  deduced,  CMHisNaOïo, 
requires  14.7  of  nitrogen. 

In  1856,  Dusart,  starting,  as  he  tells  us,  from  my  theoretical  views,  en- 
deavorcd  to  pcoduce  the  albuminoid  bodies  by  the  action  of  a  solution  of 
ammonia  on  starch,  lactose,  or  glucose  at  températures  of  150°  and  200°  C.  In 
this  way  he  obtained,  after  several  days,  an  azotized  body,  which  resembled 
gélatine.  It  was  precipitated  by  alcohol  in  elastic  filaments,  formed  an 
imputrescible  compound  with  tannin,  and,  when  heated,  gave  off  the  odor  of 
buming  hom.  Its  proportion  of  nitrogen  was  14.0  per  cent,  which  is  near 
that  of  chondrine.  (Comptes  Rendus  de  l'Académie,  May,  1861,  p.  974.) 
Schoonbroodt  has  since  asserted  the  possibility  of  converting  sugar  into  an 
albuminoid  substance,  and  reiterated  my  suggestion  that  the  albuminoids  are 
véritable  nitryls  of  the  amyloids;  under  which  convenient  temi  he  includes 
those  hydrates  of  carbon  which  are  susceptible  of  conversion  into  glucose. 
(Ibid.,  May,1860,  p.  856.) 

In  1861,  Messrs.  Fischer  and  Boedeker  announced  the  production  of  fer- 
mentescible  sugar  by  the  action  of  dilute  acids  on  cartilage,  and  showed  that 
the  ingestion  of  gélatine  increases  the  amonnt  of  sugar  in  normal  human 
urine.  Thèse  authors  seem,  by  the  abstract  before  me  (Répertoire  de  Chimie 
Pviré,  July,  1861,  from  Ann.  der  Chem.  nnd  Pharm.,  CXVII.  p.  111),  to 
ignore  alike  my  own  observations  and  those  of  Oerhardt,  who  twenty  years 
since  ihowed  tiiat,  by  long  boUing  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  there  is  formed 
v&om  «elatinea  sweet  leiœeBtesciUe  siigary  tagether  with  a  large  waount  of_ 
snlphate  of  ammonia.    (Préda  de  Chimie  Organique,  II.  p.  521.  ) 


'^iSit. 


f .  "  Y 


J 


*I. 


XJ 


ON  THE  ORIGIN  OF  COAL. 


181 


Chemical  comlSn  ol  L^        "^  '^'^  ^^'^^  ^^^«  ^«ving  the 

source  of  eucSaUn  tîe  oH  T  ^'"'^"^^  "^^«'  *^«  «^ief 

and  h;drogen     TheTLl  r  '"  T^  T^^  "^^^^  ^"  «'^^«'^ 
little  HaZto  decaraid Tir  ^f"  ^^  ^'*^^"'  "'^^^  ^'^^T 

remain  unchanged  and  n>«-,f  Îk  !  ^"""^  caused  them  to 

more  than  if  v^getab?^^^^^^  «^™--l  -^stances 

ts:r^-d:T£^ 

cojil      Tf   „i»^  "uoeaaea  m  shale  becomes  a  laver  of  nnro 

tissues,  not  onlv  of  the  fr.„f^  a^!^  Prmcipally  of  epidermal 

of  thei  leaves  and  stem  »  "^^"^  "'  ^'"^^'  "^"^  «^^ 

.l««dy  done  „„  page  ,76.    We  Z:^^^^  '^^'  " 


Cellulose 

Cork    .        .        .   ■     . 

Lycopodium    . 

Peat  (Vaux) 

Brown  coal  (Schrotter) 

Lignite  (Vaux) 


filtOiufiiôus  coal  (Ëegnault) 


C„H„.^Oj, 
^i«H,4..0„., 

C..H„0,.. 


f  vJ4i    i   1    'l 


^i^^l^sà^JjÊiÙ   !ii^Êk^t.i^\^id- i^   ^^rMji-^     ^  i*  ,^t«f!. 


tdit  , 


L-aiï. 


182 


ON  THE  OKIGIN  OF  COAL. 


[X. 


I  further  said,  "  It  will  be  eeen  from  this  comparison  that  in  ulti- 
mate  composition  cork  and  lycopodium  are  ue^rer  to  lignite  than 
to  woody  fibre  (cellulose),  and  may  be  converted  into  coal  with  far 
less  loss  of  Carbon  and  hydrogen  than  the  latter.  They,  in  fact,  ' 
approacb  doser  in  composition  to  resins  and  fats  than  to  wood  ;  and 
moreover,  like  thèse  substances,  repel  water,  with  which  they  are 
not  easily  moistened,  and  are  thus  able  to  resist  those  atmospheric 
influences  which  effect  the  decay  of  woody  tissue." 

The  nitrogen  present  in  the  lycopodium  spores,  as  remarked  by 
Dà^fïion,  "  no  doubt  belongs  to  the  protoplasm  in  them,  which  would 
soon  perish  by  decay  ;  and,  subtracting  this,  the  cell-walls  of  the 
spores  and  the  walls  of  the  spore-cases  would  be  most  suitable  material 
for  the  production  o^  bituminous  coaL    But  this  suitableness  they 
share  with  the  epideimal  tissue  of  the  scales  of  strobUes  and  of 
the  stems  and  leaves  of  fems  and  lycopods,  and  above  ail  with 
the  thick  corky  envelope  of  the  stems  of  sigUlarise  and  similar 
trees  ....  which,  from  its  condition  in  the  prostrate  and  in  the  erect 
tnmks  coutamed  in  the  beds  associated  with  coal^  must  hâve  been,'  - 
highly  carbonaceoiis  and  extremely  enduring,  and  imperméable  to*^ 
water."    The  substance  known  as  minerai  charcoal  is,  according  to 
Dawson,  derived  from  woody  tissue  and  the  fibres  of  bark.    (See  in 
this  connection  his  paper  on  the  Conditions  of  the  Accumulation  of 
Coal;  Quarterly  Geological  Journal,  XXII.  95.) 

[Note  to  page  180.  The  petroleum  of  Pennsylvania,  according  to  Pelouze 
and  Cahoure,  yields  by  fractional  distillation  varions  liquida  having  the 
coramon  fonniila  CH^,  (C  =  12),  the  value  of  n  ranging  from  4  to  15, 
(corresponding  to  C,H„  .  .  .  C^H»  in  the  notation  adopted  in  the  preceding 
pages),  and  the  boUing-point  from  fl"  to  160°  C.  Of  this  séries,  which  also  in-  • 
éludes  the  paraffines,  the  flrst  term  is  marsh-gas  or  formene,  and  the  second  and 
third  belong  to  the  ethylic  and  propyUc  groupa,  being  C^„  C^H,  and  C,H,  in 
the  above  notation.  The  latter  two,  accotding  to  Ronalds,  are  found  in  solu- 
tion in  the  crude  petroleum.  The  researches  of  Foucou  and  Fouqué  (Comptes 
Rendus,  November  23, 1868J  show  that  while  the  inflammable  gases  from  the 
so-caUed  Buming  Spring  near  Niagara  Falls,  and  from  an  oU-well  in  Wirtz 
County,  West  Virginia,  are  marsh-gaa  with  email  admixtures  of  carbonic  acid, 
the  gases  from  an  oil-well  in  Petrolia,  Ontario,  and  from  Fredonia,  Chatauque 
County,  New  York,  are  mixtures,  in  abont  equal  parts,  of  the  second  and  thini 
hydrocarbons  of  the  above  seriear  The  gu  at  the  latter  locality  is  from  a 
well  sunk  into  thé  Oenessee  slates,  at  the  summit  of  the  Hamilton  formation, 
which  gives  no  petroleum,  but  has  for  many  years  fumished  the  snpply  of 
gas  for  lighting  a  small  town.  The  gas  ttom  an  oil-well  in  Venango  County, 
Pennsylvania,  contained  besides  the  flrst  threo  bodies  of  the  séries  a  portion 
of  the  ft^th,  r^H,^  Neither  acétylène,  flree  hydrogen,  carbonic  oxide,  nor 
olefitot  gii  or  ito  homologigi  ww»  detected.] 


■I-; 


; 


il 


ON  GRANITES  AND  GRANITIC  VEIN 

.    STONES. 

(1871-1872.) 

Structure   of  granihc  and  gneissic  mks,  4,  6.   Felsites  and  felsitel 
porphynes;    6    Gneisses  and  granités  of   New  England;    7.   Granitic 

oliiti.^   ?  ^'î?''^  °°  ^'^**«  *°'^  K™""'«   émanations  ;    11 
Gran  ic   distinguished   from  concretionary  veins,    12.   Von  Cotta  on 

of  granitic^eins;  15.  The  banded  structura  of  granitic  vetas:  16 
Gramt.c  veS^  of  Maine,  Brunswick;  17.  To-^^l.amrParis;  18  Wesl 
Wk  Lewiston,  crystalline  lin^estones;  19.  Danvllle.  K^tclLT^ 
&  VelT  ™T"  'i:  ^«'«^«^■^«i»-;  Biddefo^.  Sherb,4ke  • 
t^ese  vïïsfrr  -^  ^K>«f  lo«^ties;  23.  Minerai  apecies  of 
thèse  veins,  24.  Veins  m  empted  granités;  25.  Géodes  in  p-anites; 
26.  Veins  distinguished  from  dikes;  27.  Volger  and  Foumet  on  thè 
ongm  of  veins,  28,  2».  Certain  Assures  and  gSodes  distinSeJ  from 
veinsopening  to  the  surface,  30,  31.  TempelS,^  of  c^sZ^Z 

SmSni"  37Ti  '"■  ."""""""^  «"''*^'  ^-  py™^-*-  -" 

0^!^r  Ji     ;  o^  f   niica-schists;    35.  Oasses  of  veins;    36. 

Granitic  vein-stones;  37.   Similar  veins  in  Norway;  38.   Minera  s  o 

/»°™«^t>0M  of  crystals  ;  41.  Skeleton-crystals;  42.  Rounded 
crystals;  43.  Quartz  crystals  in  metalliferous  veins,  44  T>3of 
vein-stones;  feldspathic;  46.  Calcareous  vein-stones;  k  OrferTf  suï 

atones  in  higher  rocks,  4».  Supposed  eruptive  limestones. 

§  1.  The  name  of  granité  is  employed  to  designate  a  sup- 
posed  eruptive  or  exotic  ^tr^ed  composite  rock,  gmnnl^,  „ 


.iMliA-.h:;'': 


%.,.,. 


■xhM 


i^«.'tfUM¥' 


»%m: 


=  s.     /«     *f  ^   '^*>i^^'4Ïâ;0ï«*>  t^** 


< 


184 


GRANITES  AND  GBANITIO  VEIN-STONES. 


[XI. 


crystalline  in  texture,  and  consisting  essentially  of  orthoclase- 
feldspar  and  quartz,  with  an  adiuixture  of  mica,  and  frequently 
of  a  triclinic  feldspar,  either  oligoclase  or  albite.  This  is  the 
définition  of  granité  given  by  most  writers  on  lithology,  and 
applies  to  a  great  portion  of  what  are  commonly  called  granitic 
rocks;  there  are,  however,  crystalline  granite-like  aggregates  ■ 
in  which  the  mica  is  replaced  by  a  dark  colored  hornblende  or 
amphibole,  and  to  such  a  compouud  rock  many  authors  hâve 
given  the  uam'ë  of  syenite,  while  to  those  in  which  mica  and 
hornblende  coexist  the  name  of  syenitic  granité  is  appliëd. 
It  is  observed  that  in  certain  of  thèse  homblendic  granités  the 
quartz  becomes  less  in  amount  than  in.  ordinary  granités,  and 
finally  disappears  altogether,  giving  rise  to  a  rock  composed  of 
oithoclase  and  hornblende  only.  To  such  a  binary  aggregate 
Von  Cotta  \xA  Zirkel  would  restrict  the  term  "  syenite,"  yrhicïT 
was  already  defined  by  D'OmaUus  d'Halloy  to  be  a  crystalline 
aggregate  of  hornblende  and  feldspar;  by  which  orthoclase- 
feldspar  maybe  understood,  since  he  describes  varieties  of 
syenite  as  passing  into  diorite, — a  name  by  most  modem 
hthologists  restricted  to  a  compound  of  albite,  or  some  more 
basic  triclinic  feldspar,  with  hornblende.  It  is  apparently  by  " 
&iling  to  appreciate  the  distinction  between  orthoclase  and 
triclinic  feldspar,  in  this  connection,  that  Haughton  has  lately 
described,  under  the  name  of 'syenite,  rocks  which  are  composed 
of  crystalline  labradorite  and  hornblende.     - 

§  2.  Kaumann,  regarding  orthoclase  and  quartz  as  the  essen- 
tial  constituents  of  granité,  désignâtes  those  aggregates  which 
contain  mica  as  mica-granites,  and  thus  distinguishes  them 
firom.  hornblende-granités,  in  which  the  mica  is  replaced  by^ 
hornblende.  Thèse  définitions  seem  the  morè  désirable,  as  the 
name  of  granité  is  popularly  applied  both  to  the  hornbleindic 
and  the  micaceous  aggregates  of  orthoclase  and  quartz.  There 
are  not  wanting  examples  of  "well-defined  rocks  of  this  kind  in 
which  both  mica  and  hornblende  wre  almost  or  altogether  want- 
ing. Such  rocks  hâve  been  designated  binary  granités,  a  term 
which  it  will  be  well  to  retain.  Chloritic  and  talçose  granités, 
-into  the  composition  of  "^nuch  Ghiontd^and^aao^'enter)  new^ 


^  -^w^      rf^tjn'^WX 


XI.] 


GRANITES  AND  GRANITIC  VÈlN-STONÉS. 


185 


only  be  mentioned  m  this  connection.     The  name  of  syenite 
so  often  given  to  hornblendic  granités,  ^viU,  in  accorckn  e  ^th 

quartz.     While  the  disappearance  of  this  minerai  from  honi 
blendxc  granités  is  held  to  give  ris,  to  a  true  syenU^Te  saT; 

sistmg  of  orthoclase  and  mica,  for  which  we  hav,  no  name. 
Gr^t  masses  of  an  eruptive  ix,ck,  granite-like  in  stltui^  a^d 
cons^tmg  of  crystalline  orthodase  or  sanidin,  withouT  any 
quartz,  occur.in  the  province  of  Québec.  Thi  Tek  contaZ 
m  some  cases  a  smaU  admixture  of  black  mica  and  in  of^ 

vanety  might  be  descnbed  as  syenite,  but  for  the  former  we 
hâve  no  d^stinctive  name;  and  I  hâve  described  both  of  thel 
by  the  name  of  granitoid  trachytes,  a  term  which  I  adop ted  the 

fddLTtfro  r^'  ^'  *'^  p^^""^^  composition' :nh 

leldspar,  and  a  so  because  compact  and  finely  granular  rocks 

enf  IlTlT"'  ^"r  ^^""^^  ^^«'"^-^  co^ositL  pt 

Sulttot        "•;'.*^P''^^'  ^'^^^^^^  «^"d  appa^ntly 

-^  Sr?!    id        ^""'^"^  '«'^«  just  noticed.*    In  aU  a^ 

S  in  Jfd^LT  V"^^^^  ^°"P°"^^   ^«^^«'  ''  «^^^"   ^e 

b':radmiri  sUot  z:t^.T'''''''  ^^^^^^' 

only  be  arbitrarily  defined  Sd  liSted     "^"^  ^^^^"'  ''''  ^"^ 

Â!'  Z""^'°  '^r.^'^'''^  '^'  "^^«™1  composition  of  granitic 
rocks,  M^  proceed  to  notice  theîr  structure     Gneiss  h^    h! 

Z"  T"'  '''"''''''  "'  ^""«'  ">-'  -  distinguTed  by  tt 

eTts   iriifhTI  ''''  ^"^"^^  '^-"««-"*  oTS  eonstifu! 
ents,  and  hthologists  are  aware  that  in  certain   varieties  of 

^e    80  that  the  distinction  between  gneiss  and  granité  reS 
rather  on  geognostical  than  on  Mthological  g^un^    To  th« 
htholog.st  in  fact,  the  granitoid.gneiss'es  aJ^mply  m!re  o 
ess  s^mtiform  granités,  whUe  it  belongs  to  the  geoS  to 
consider  whetLr  this  structure  bas  x.s«fted  fx.m  a  fldZl^ 


A^gcanJo«nud_of  JdgnMm  3UavIIL^m   ^^Zfiteï.  Rj^ 


.^i 


*     4  H'-  -**«, 


s^<^jSi5h^\^a5^t4W'*8Jj*v^  .V,i.,t^i)^'-!„v/^;*<>^:   \.,  . 


ft,  A 


"*T- 


«- 


186  GRANITES  AND  GEANmC  VEIN-STONES.  *         [p. 


^déposition,  or  from  the  flôwing  of  a  -semi-fluid  heterogeneous 
massjgiving  lise  to  a  stratiform  arrangement.* 

§  4.   The  rocks  having  the  mineralogical  composition   of 
granités  présent  a  graduai  passage  from  the  ooarae  structure  of 

'[*  This  pfocess  bas  been  particularly  describêd  in  my  ContributionS^to 
Lithologj',  where  also  the  principles  of  lithological  classification  are  disctissed 
at  length.  (  Ametkan  Journal  of  Science  for  March  and  July,  1864.  )  A  strati- 
form structure  in  ernptivè  rocks  is  i^ere  said  to  be  du»  to  "  the  arrangement 
of  cryst*l8  during  the  movement  of  the  half-lictuid  crystalline  mass,  but  it  inay 
in  some  instances  arise  from  the  subséquent  formation  of  crystjils  àrranged 
in  parallel  planes."  In  the  same  paper,  in  describiug  the  dolerite  of  Montar- 
ville,  the  altemations  of  ,a  coarse  vàriety,  porphyritic  from  the  présence  <of 
large  crystals  of  augite,  With  a  liner  grained  and  whiter  variety  is  uoticed; 
the  two  being  "  arrangea  iu"bands,  whose  varying  thickness  and  curving  Hues 
suggest  the  notion  that  they  h^tv» been  produced  b/'the  flow  and  the  partial 
commingling  of  two  iluid  masses."  At/Mount  Royal  also,  as  thçre  described, 
"mixtures  of  augit*  with  feldspar  are  met  withy, constituUng  a  granitoid 
dolerite,  in  parts  of  which  the  feldspar  predoniinat^Sj  giving  lise  to  a  light 
'  grayish  rock.  Portions  of  this  are  sometime8.foUnd  limited  on  either  side  by 
banda  of  nearly  pure  black  pyro;cenite,  giving  at  first  sight  an  aspect  of  strati- 
fication. The  bands  of  thes«  two  varieties  are  found  (juiiously  contorted  and 
^iitemirted,  and,  as  at  Montarville,  seem  to  hâve  resulted  from  movements  in 
a  heterogeneous  pasty  mass,  which  hâve  effected  a  partial  blending  of  an  augitic 
magma  with  another  more  feldspathic  in  its  nature." 

Further  illustrations  of  this  are  given'by  tj>e  author  in  a  communication 
to  the  Boston  Society  of  Naturel  History,  January  7,  1874.  Among  Uiese 
was  a  spécimen  from  Groton,  Connecticut,  in  which  a  large  angular  fragment 
of  strongly  banded  micaceous  gneiss  is  eïiclosed  in  a  fine-grained  eruptive 
.  granité,  the  mica  plates  in  which  are  so  àrranged  as  to  show  a  beautiful  and 
eveu  stratification  in  contact  with  the  bn*en  edges  of  the  gneiss,  but  at  right 
angles  to  the  strata  of  the  latter.  Another  example  is  afforded  by  the  erup- 
tive diorite  from  the  niesozoic  sandstone  of  Lambertville,  New  Jersey,  which 
is  conspicuously  marked  by  light  and  dark  bands  due  to  the  altehiate  pré- 
dominance of  one  or  the  other  of  the  constituent  minerais  ;  and  still  another 
in  a  fine-grained  dark  micaceous  dolerite  dike  fronr  the  Trenton  limestone  at 
Montréal,  in  which  the  abundant  laminœ  of  .mica  (probhbly  biotite)  are  àr- 
ranged parallel  to  the  walls  of  the  dike,  A  similar  banded  structure  is  seen 
in  glacier-ice  and  in  fumace-slags.  Some  geôlogists  hâve  from  facts  of  this 
kind  been  led  to  suppose  that'  the  banded  structure  of  great  areas  of  gneiss  was 
caused  by  movements  of  flow  in  a  solidifying  mass.  and  not  by  successive  de- 
posits  of  dissolved  or  suspended  matérial  from  a  ^tery  médium.  While  ad- 
mitting  the  fréquent  occurrence  of  this  structtflè  m  eruptive  rocks,  and  the 
necessity  in  many  cases  of  a  careful  geognostical  study  to  détermine  to  wliich 
class  a  stratiform  rock  should  be  referred,  it  was  maintained  that  the  great 
areas  of  gneissic  rocks  are  of  aqneous  origin,  and  were  tkpositeil  in  successive 
:^ï=^  horfzontjd  layers-with  tbeiraMocii^ed  limeatonesf  quartàtes,  Mjdr  iron-oiiid^-J 


«jji 


\ 


'■* 


,      ïl}  OEAMTÈS  ASD  GRANIno  VEIS-STOSES.  187 

ordinaiy  micaoeons,  homblendic,  and  binarv  ™nite  tn  «„.i 

ciystal»  oi  orthoclase,  and  sometimes  of  cristal.  ™  ™,-       / 

J^U.  eannot  be  do£  Û  tni^dSt  •  ^^I  ^.^T 
§  5.  Felaitea  and  fAite-porphyries  or  orthopbyM  are  w,li  " 

ana  jn  ew  buryport,  and  niay  be  traced  from  Machias  and  Tt^ 
port  m  Marne,  along  the  southem  coast  of  mwTunswiîlo 

though  m  eyery  place  subject  to  considérable  variatfons  ^1 
a  compact  jasper-like  rock  to  mor^  or  less  coa:.ely  granX  v^ 
nehes,  al  of  which  are  often  porphyritic  from  feMs^CU 

of   hese  rocks  are  genei^Uy  some  shade  of  i^d,  vaiying  Lm 

vanetijB  are  however  occasîonally  met  Tvith.     Thèse  i-ocks  1 

socated  with  diontic,  chloritic,  and  epidotic  stmta.  Thev  ao- 
parently  belong.  like  the.,  to  the  gJt  Huronian  systl  '  "" 
[Stmtiform  rocks,  seemingly  identical  with  thèse  quartziferous 
fldspar-porphyries^abound  in  Missouri,  where  they  arTar 
mted  -^h  the  -n-a.es  of  l«,n  Mountain  and  Shepard  mZ 

ftr    i,  7      !*^"""^  *^'°^  "^«^  *  coAsidemble  ar*  aIon« 
th   Borth  sho.  of  Uke  Superior,  on  an  island  south  of  Stl^ 
Bace  and  for  some  distance  along  the  coast  to  the  southwesf 
^reccm  and  conglome^te  in  which  is  found  the  n^L-^ 


'I 
•1- 

k  J 


n„*  *t-  «        -e — ^-^^^  xii  nuKu  is  louna  the  native- 
^of  theCarumêf  ânraecla  and  the  Boston  and  A^^ 


mi.4^  L 


fKA.       -  '^■'j*'  Tv^^j  %  Là 


'îîf'TmWflBST'ff^ 


188 


GRANITES  AND   GRANITIC  VEIN-STONES. 


[XI. 


mines  of  the  Keweenaw  peninsula,  x)n  the  south  shore  of  the 
same  lakc,  is  made  up  in  large  part  of  the  ruina  of  >  similar 
orthophyres.] 

§6.  Many  of  tlie  so-called  granités  of  New  England  are 
true  gneisses  ;  aia,  for  example,  those  quarried  in  Augusta,  Hal- 
lowell,  Brunswick,  and  many  other  places  in  Maine,  which  are 
indigenous  rocks  interstratitied  with  the  micaceoos  and  hom- 
blondic  schists  of  the  great  White  Mountain  séries.  To  this 
class  also,  judging  from  lithological  characters,  belong  the  so- 
called  granités  of  Concord  and  Fitzwilliam,  New  Harapshire. 
Thèse  indigenous  rock^  are  tenderer,  less  cohérent,  and  gener- 
ally  finer  grained  than  the  eruptive  granités,  of  which  we  hâve 
examples  in  the  micaceous  granité  of  Biddeford,  Maine,  and 
the  liomblendic  granités  of  Marblehead  and  Stoneham,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  ail  of  which  localitieg 
the  contact  of  the  eruptive  mass  with  the  enclosing  rock  is 
plainly  seen,  as  is  also  the  case  farther  eastward,  on  the  St. 
Croix  and  St.  John's  Eivers  in  New  B^un8^vick,  and  in  the 
Cobequid  Hills  and  elsewhere  in  Nova  Scotia.  The  hom- 
blendic  granités  of  Gloucester,  Salem,  and  Quincy,  Massachu- 
setts, seem  also,  from  their  lithological  characters,  to  belong  to 
the  class  of  exotic  or  true  eruptive  granités.*  The  further  dis- 
cussion of  the  nature  and  origin  of  thèse  gneiases  and  granités 
is  reserved  for  another  occasion,  and  we  now  proceed  to  notice 
the  history  of  granitic  veina. 

§  7.  The  eruptive  granitic  masses  just  noticed  not  only  in- 
clude  fragments  of  the  adjacent  rocks,  especially  near  the  line 
of  contact,  but  very  often  send  off  dikes  or  veins  into  the  sur- 
rounding  strata.  The  relation  of  thèse  with  the  parent  mass  is 
however  generally  obvioua,  and  it  may  be  seen  that  they  do 
not  differ  from  it  except  in  being  often  finer  grained.  Thèse 
injected  or  intruded  veins  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  a 
third  class  of  granitic  aggregates,  which  I  hâve  elsewhere 
described  as  granitic  vein-stones,  or,  to  express  their  supposed 

•  T.  8.  Hunt  on  the  Q«ology  of  Eastern  New  England,  American  Journal 
of  Science  for  July,  1870,  p.  88;  also  Notes  on  the  Oeology  of  the  Vicinity  of 
AwtoB,  ftroc.  BoitPa^NftU  Smi-Sm-^^Q^MMOL     ^ 


u^- 


M 


.11} 


«UNITES  AND  OEANITIO  VÏIN-STONES. 


189 


■  *ode  of  formation,  end<;ge„ons  gnmite».    Ther  are  to  fh. 

rr  -.«f'rf  teaa^ljS'onttr:"  "«"S 
^«la^anda^ure,  in  the  latter,  and  depoSLIZS,.?;"^ 

m  Scandmavia  as  having  been  formed  by  secretiorrT  her  Zn 
by  i^eous  injection,  as  maintained  by  Durocher    '  '^"^ 

ace  01  Winch  the  firet  granités  crystaUized."  From  the  ruina 

Ci^  r"  :r'  *''  '"*  "^^^-^"^  ^eposits,  "nt  dLX 

^Z^Z7:^'T^'''''^''  -^^^^  be'ca^e'fixed  r2 
from  fbf;  ^''"'  P"'*'  '^^  *^«««  «masses,  coagnlated 

ina  whxch  were  thns  concentrated  in  the  outermost^ortl:^'? 

Tw^Ln       g!f'^  ^"^  *^^  '««^  ''f  *he  masses  alika 

■'jLweir  oitmor  positron  a^^their^ecÏÏIÏar  structure:    They 


.-^.1 


-,  \ 


.^il- 


190  GRANITES  AKD  GRANITIC  VEIN-STONES.  [XI. 

are  often  coarae-grained,  and  include  the  pegmatites,  tourmaline- 
granités,  and  veina  carrying  cassiterite  and  columbite,  frequent- 
ly  abounding  in  quartz.  Thèse  minerai  products  are  to  be 
regarded  as  émanations  from  the  granité,  and  are  described  as 
a  granitic  aura,  constituting  what  Humboldt  has  caH^d  the 
penumbra  of  the  granité.  (Bull.  Soc.  GeoL  de  France  (2),  IV. 
1249.     See  particularly  pages  1295,  1321,  and  1323.) 

§  10.  While  Foumet,  Durocher,  and  Rivière  conceived  the 
granitic  magma  to  hâve  been  purely  anhydrous,  and  in  a  st^te 
of  simple  igneous  fusion,  Elle  de  fieaumont  maintained,  with  , 
Poulett  Scrope  and  Scl^eerer,  that  water  had  in  ail  cases  inter- 
vened,  arid  that  a  few  hundredths  of  water  might,  at  a  low 
red  beat,  hâve  given  rise  to  the  condition  of  imperfect  liquidity 
which  he  imagined  for  the  material  of  the  injected  grahites. 
The  coatsely  crystalline  granitic  veins  were,  according  to  him, 
veins  of  injection,  and  he  speaks  of  them  as  examples  in  which 
"  the  phenomena  essential  to  the  formation  of  granité  had  been 
manifested  with  the  greatest  intensity."  The  granitic  émana- 
tions, which  are  supposed  to  bave  fumished  the  material  of 
thèse  veins,  appear  to  be  regarded  by  him  as  the  resuit  of  a 
process  of  eliquation  from  the  congealing  granitic  mass.  De 
Beaumont  is  careful  ta  distinguish  between  them  and  those 
émanations  which  are  disqolved  iu'  minerai  waters,  or  are  ex- 
haled  as  volcanic  vapors  (page  1324).  To  the  agency  of  such 
waters  he  àscribes  the  formation  of  concretionary^njns,  which 
are  generally  characterized  by  their  symmetrieauy  banded 
structure.  He  further  adds  that  granités,  as  to  their  mode  of 
formation,  offer  a  character  intermediate  between  ordinarj  veins 
and  volcanic  and  bosio  rocks.  This  is  conceivable  as  regards 
granitic  veins,  since  thèse,  according  to  him,  although  formed 
by  injection,  and  not  by  concrétion,  resuit  from  a  process  of 
émanation  from  the  parent  granitic  mass,  which  may  be  de- 
scribed as  a  kind  of  ségrégation.. 

I  hâve  thus  endeavored  to  give,  for  the  most  part  in  bis  own 
words,  the  views  on  the  origin  of  granités  enunciated  by  the 
great  French  geologist  in  his  classic  essay  ou  Volcanic  and 
Metalliferous  Emanations,  publjshgd  in  1847.    They  belong  to 


T 


i*i 


^J^JSi'j 


^j^^  ^^    ^iuft^s^iX^ie^fthi'SiM^ia^  it   ^^ 


,  4rj4  \J.Éiâk-i.ii,Ji3'Sîllf'^<itei''-. 


XI]  GRANITES  AND  GRANITIC  VEIJir-STONEa.  191 

the  history  of  our  subject,  and  are  remarkable  as  a  clear  and 
complète  expression  of  those  modified  plutonic  views  which 
are  probably  held  by  a  great  number  of  enlightened  geologists 
at  the  présent  time.  My  reasons  for  dissenting  from  them,  and 
the  theones  which  I  offer  in  their  stead,  will  be  shown  in  the 
sequel. 

§  11.  Elie  de  Beaumont,  while  regarding  the  formation  of 
gmmtic  veins  as  a  process  in  which  water  jntervened  to  give 
fluidity  to  the  magma,  was  careful  to  diatirtguish  the  process 
from  that  of  the  production  of  concretionary  veins  from  aque-' 
nous  s^ution,  and  sùpposed  the  fissures  to  hâve  been  filled  by 
the  injéStion  of  a  jet  of  pasty  mattor  derived  from  a  consolidat- 
mg  gramtic  mass.  Daubrée  ând  Scheerer,  in  describing  the 
granitic  vems  of  Scandinavia,  conceive  the  material  fillina 
them  to  hâve  been  derived  from  the  enclosing  ciystalline  stratT 
mstead  of  from  an  unstratified  granitic  nucleus,  bift  do  not,  2 
tac  as  1  am  aware,  compare  their  formation  to  that  of  concre- 
tionary veins.     Their  pubUcations  on  this  subject,  it  should 

«To'  ^r  ^"^^  ^^™'  ^  ^^^  ^y  «f  ^^  Beaumont. 

^12.  Ih^  notion  that  aU  granitic  veins  are  the  resuit  of 
8ome  process  of  injection,  and  not  to  be  confounded  with  con-   • 
cretionary  veins,  seems  indeed  to  hâve  been  gênerai  up  to  the 
présent  tune.     Even  Von  Cotta,  while  strongly  maintaining  the 
aqueous  and  concretionary  origin  of  metaUiferous  veins  in  gen- 
eial,  when  describing  those  consisting  of  quartz,  mica,  feldspar. 
toà^rmahne,  gamet,  and  apatite,  with  cassiterite,  wolfmm,  ete 
which  occur  at  Zinnwald  |nd  at  Johanngeorftastadt,  is  at  l 
loss  whether  to  regard  thèse  veins,  from  their  granitic  character. 
as  igneous-flmd  injections  or  as  concretionaiy  Iodes.     In  sup! 
port  /)f  the  latter  view  he  refers  to  their  more  or  less  regular 
and  symmetricaUy  banded  structure,  and  while  recaUing  the 
fact  that  mica  and  feldspar  may  both  be  formed  in^the  humid 
way,  considers  the  nature  of  thèse  tém  to  be  very  problemati- 
cal,  and  the  question  of  their  origin  a  diffi^ult  onè.     (Ore  De- 
posits,  Prime's  translation,  1870,  pag^  HO  -  124.) 

*».  ^  !?■/  ^""^  ^'*''  '^"'^'^  y?*"  **««^<^  *tat  graiitic  veins  of 
Jtbfl-Jtind  just^referred  to — 


are^ttcretionarf  Mid^of  aqueoos 


,//• 


'i:W'4,'-.,--    ,'^ 


192  GRANITES  AND  GRANITIC  VEIN-8T0NES.  [XI. 

\ 
origin.     In  18G3  I  described  certain  veina  in  the  crystalline 

schista  of  thè  Appalachian  région  of  Canada,  "  where  fleah-red 
orthoclase  occure  so  intermingled  with  chlçrito  and  white 
quartz  os  to  show  the  contempo'raneous  formation  of  thô  threo 
apecies.  The  orthoclase  generally  prédominâtes,  often  reposing 
upbn  or  surrounded  by  chlorite  ;  at  other  times  it  is  knbedded 
in  quartz,  which  covers  the  latter.  Drusy  cavities,  are  also 
lined  with  small  crystals  of  the  feld8par,,and  hâve  been  subso- 
quently  iilled  with  cleavable  bitter-spar,  sometim'es  associatod 
with  specular  iron,  rutile,  and  sulphuretted  copper  ores."  A 
Btudy  of  thèse  veins  thows  a  transition  from  those  "  containing 
quartz  and  bitter-spar,  with  a  little  chlorite  or  talc,  through 
others  in  which  feldspar  gradually  prédominâtes,  until  we  ar- 
rive at  veins  made  up  of  orthoclase  and  quartz,  sometimes  in- 
cluding  mica,  and  having  the  character  of  a  -Coarse  granité  ;  the 
occasional  présence  of  sulphurets  of  copper  and  specular  iron 
characterizing  ail  of  them  alike.  It  is  probable  that  thèse,  and 
indeed  a  great  proportion  of  quartzo-feldspathic  veins,  are  of 
aqueous  origin,  and  hâve  been  deposited  from  solutions  iu 
fissures  of  the  atrata,  precisely  like  metalliferous  Iodes.  This 
remark  applies  espeèially  to  those  granitic  veins  which  include 
minerais  containing  the  rarer  éléments.  Among  thèse  are 
boron,  phosphorus,  fluorine,  lithium,  cœsium,  rubidium,  gluci- 
num,  zircouium,  tin,  and  columbium  ;  which  characterize  the 
minerai  speciés  apatite,  tourmaline,  lepidolite,  spodumene, 
béryl,  zircon,  allanite,  cassiterite,  columbite,  and  many  others." 
(Geology  of  Canada,  pp.  476,  644  ;  and  anle,  p.  33.) 

In  this  connection  I  referred  to  the  occurrence  of  orthoclase 
with  quartz,  calcite,  zeolites,  èpidote,  aud  native  copper  in  cer- 
tain minerai  veins  of  Lake  Superior,  so  well  described  by  Pro- 
fesser J.  D.  Whitney.  (American  Journal  of  Science  (2), 
XXVIII.  16.)  The  associations,  according  to  him,  show  the 
contemporaneous  crystallization  of  the  copper,  natrolite,  calcite, 
and  feldspar,  which  last  was  found  by  analysis  to  be  a  pure 
potash-orthoclase. 

§  14.  In  1864  this  view  was  still  further  insisted  upon  in 
thfl  .Tniimal  jnst  cit^  {{%  XXXVII.  252),  wherft.  in  spflaking- 


^h(Mi^nti'&M\  « 


ri.'.i.' 


,  i*..  A 


■H'  ■'   "isïst.' 


MO  GRANITES  AND  GRANITIC   VEIN-STONES.  193„ 

of  minerai  vein-stones  "  which  flniiT.ti„oo  u       i, 

veiiM  from  those  of  injocW  pl„t„„ie  rock,    IP.™  l 

aikes  ot  intrusive  granité.     Fiom  thèse,  Imwover   tru«  voîn! 

r.  mt'rsii^  "•"  ''™™"  °'  "■■^"■™  nr 

"1     boron,  fluonJîBrT»h«gphorus,  cœsiuni,   rubidium    lithium 
g^ucmum,  zn.onium  «n.  colu«Aium.  etc.    elementT'wSre' 

^ments,  but  are  he,.  accumul^ted  by  depositio^^Ja  J^  ' 

which  havo  remove*^hese  éléments  from  the  sodimentaVS 

and  deposited  them  subsequently  in  fissures  " 

^In  the  Report  of  the  G«ological  Sun^ey  of  Canada  for  1866 
rtv     -      .  ^^''*'*  "'  describing  ihe  veina  of  the  Laurentian 
rocks,  insisted  still  fu^ber  on  the  distinction  just  ^mwn  be 
tween  grandie  dilces  and  granitic  vein-stones,  which  lltteri    ' 
hâve  p.pd  to  call  endogenous  rocks,  to  indicate  the  Lta 

exotic  rocks,  and  sedimentary  or  indigenous  rocks.       . 

iJJ  ^""""  ^^"'^''^  arrangement,  which  is  se  charac- 

W.C  m  concretionary  veins  not  granitic  in  composition,! 
Fo^Wy  not  less  marked  in  granitic  vein-stones,  an'oflen  ap! 
pea«  m  thèse  m  a  remarkable^nner.  showing  that  they  hâve 
bœ^fonned  by  successive  dépositions  of  minLl  matte^r,  and 

S^f  ZT  ^'''^'  ^^^  «*""=*"'«'  *"d  varions  j^cul- 
tT^d  h  ^^^^^«^  ^»  ^^^^  vein-stones,  wiU  be  best  Hlus- 
fc«^d  by  descnptxons  of  varions  localities,  most  of  which  I 

veins  of  the  gneiss  anc^  mica-schist  séries  of  New  England  • 

^aLT"?^*'?  '^^^'  ^"^'^*^*°  ^''^  «^^-  York  and 
Caïuul..     In  the  latter  class  will  be  noticed  the  more  or  le^ 

If 


1 


'ir 


194 


GRANITES  AND  GEANITIC  VEIN-STONES. 


PCL 


0 


fied  gneisses  (§  6)  which  I  hâve  elsewhere  provisionally  desig- 
nated  the  Terranovan  séries  *  [since  called  Montalban],  that  I 
hâve  seen  concretionary  granitic  veins  in  the  greatest  abundance 
and  on  the  grandest  scale.  Thia  etratified  system,  which  is 
well  seen  in  the  White  Mountains,  appears  to  extend  south- 
ward  along  the  Blue  Ridge  as  fkr  as  Georgia,  and  northeast- 
ward  beyond  the  limits  of  Maine.  It  is  in  this  State  that  I 
hâve  particularly  studied  the  granitic  vein-stpnes  of  this  system, 
whose  history  may  be  illustrated  by  a  few  exâmples  fi-om  notes 
taken  on  the  spot.  lu  Brunswick  the  strata  near  the  town  are 
fine  grained,  friable,  d«rk  colored,  micaceous,  and  hornbleUdi(L 
passing  into  mica-schist  on  the  one  hand,  and  into  well-markea 
gneiss  on  the  other,  and  dipping  to  the  southeast  at  angles  of 
from  15°  to  40°.  Very  similar  beds  are  found  in  the  adjoins 
ing  town  of  Topsham,  and  in  both  places  théy  include  nuiçei^ 
ous  endogenous  granitic  veins.  The  course  of  thèse  veins  is 
generally  northwest,  or  at  right  angles  to  the  strike,  though 
occasionally  for  short  distances  with  the  strike,  and  intercalated 
between  the  beds  ;  the  veins  vary  in  breadth  from  a  few  inches 
to  sixty  feet,  and  even  more.  They  generally  consist  in  great 
part  of  orthoclase  aud  quartz,  with  some  mica  and  tourmaline, 
and  offer  in  the  associations  and  grouping  of  these^.  minerais 
many  peculiarities,  which  are  met  with  not  only  in  diiferent 
veins,  but  in  différent  parts  of  the  same  vein.  In  some  cases, 
colorless  vitreous  quartz  greatly  prédominâtes,  and  encloses 
crystals  of  milk-white  orthoclase,  often  modified,  and  from  one 
to  several  inches  in  diameter.  At  other  times  pure  vitreous 
quartz  forma  one  or  both  walls,  or  the  centre  of  the  veio,  or 
else  is  arranged  in  bands  parallel  with  the  sides  of  the  vein, 
and  sometimes  a  foot  or  more  in  thickness,  altemating  with 
similar  bands  consisting  whoUy  or  in  great  part  of  orthoclase, 

*  American  Journal  of  Science  for  July,  1870,  page  83,  and  Can.  Natnralist, 
V.  p.  198.  —  The  rocks  of  this  Wliite  Mountain  séries  are,  in  the  présent  state 
of  our  knowledge,  supposed  to  be  newer  than  the  Huronian  system  noticed  in 
§  5,'  to  which,  with  Macfarlane  snd  Credner,  I  refer  the  crystalline  schists, 
with  associated  serpentines  and  diorites,  of  the  Oreen  Mountains.  [See  further 
in  this  connection  Paper  XIII.  and  its  Appendix;  also  the  third  part  of  Paper 
JLÏL-Md  th«i  IntrqductioB  to  III.] __^ 


^-5P?»^^-e«" 


P 


n-I  OBANITES  AND  OKANITIO  VEIJf-STOSES.  I95 

little  or  no  mioa,  and  with  amall  cpvst^l,  17 a  """"?"'  "'"> 
".d  mo„  rarely  be^-l  «„d  ev«n  ly"l;      ?„  ,7  ™T 

though  large  quantitiea  of  white  ortfclle  anT^f      .       ' 
quart,  had  alr^ady  been  oxh^ted.    TO^^^,^  1-^'^ 

of  tha  rein  dtïï  „f1  '"«'  ,'='^*^  "'  "■'»•  ""«i  PoHiona 
Ws  of  Ïr  T    '?  *''"''^  ^y  *  ««"^«^  -«n  holding  cPyt 


/ 


k^u..Jri  ^'^Ât/Jd^  ij 


'dàlif.  ■  ;'.<:.'*^ï; 


■».■■  p 


196 


GRANITES  AND   GRANITIC   VEIN-8T0NES. 


IXI. 


Une  limestone  is  mixed  with  grains  of  greenish  pyroxene,  and 
includes  nodular  granitic  niasses  of  white  crystalline  orthodase 
with  quartz,  enclosing  large  plates  of  graphite,  crystals  of  horn- 
blende, and  more  rarely  of  apatite.  Thèse  associations  of  min- 
erais are  met  with  in  the  granitic  veins  of  the  Laurentian 
limestones,  to  he  noticed  elsewhere.  The  limestone  of  Lewis- 
ton,  however,  appears  to  be  included  in  the  great  mica-schist 
séries  of  the  regfon  ;  where  similar  beds,  though  less  in  extent, 
are  met  with  in  varions  places,  sometimes  associated  with 
pyroxene,  garnet,'  idocrase,  and  sphene.  A  thin  band  of  im- 
pure pyroxenic  limestone,  like  that  of  LewLston,  occurs  with 
the  mica-schists  on  the  Maine  Central  Eailroad,  near  Banville 
Junction  ;  and  beds  of  a  purer  crystalline  limestone  were  for- 
merly  quarried  in  the  southeast  part  of  Brunswick,  where  they 
are  interstratified  with  thin-bedded  dark  hornblendic  and  mica- 
ceous  gneiss,  dipping  southeast  at  a  high  angle. 

§  19.  At  Danville  Junction  strata  of  hornblendic  and  mica- 
ceous  gneiss,  passing  into  mica-schists,  dif  southeast  at  moder- 
ate  angles,  and  include  huge  veins  of  endogenous  granité.  Two 
of  thèse  appear  in  the  hill  just  south  of  the  railroad-station, 
apparently  running  with  the  strike  of  the  beds.  They  ^re 
seen  to  rest  upon  the  mica-schist,  and  in  one  of  them  a  mass  of 
this  rock^three  feet  in  width,  is  enclosed  like  a  tongue  in  the 
granité,  which  has  a  transverse  breadth  of  about  seventy -five 
feet.  Notwithstanding  the  apparent  intercalation  of  thèse 
granitic  masses,  the  proof  of  their  foreign  origin  is  évident  in  a 
transverse  fracture  and  slight  vertical  dislocation  of  the  mica- 
schist,  around  the  broken  edges  of  which  the  granité  is  seen  to 
wrap.  The  endogenous  character  of  this  granité  is  well  shown 
by  its  banded  structure  ;  belts  of  white  quartz  some  inches 
wide  altemate  with  others  of  coarsely  cleavable  orthoclase, 
while  other  portions  hold  black  tourmalines  and  gamets  of 
considérable  size. 

The  évidence  of  disturbance  of  the  strata  in  connection  with 
thèse  endogenous  granités  is  seen  on  a  large  scale  at  the  falls 
of  the  Sunday  River  in  Ketchum.  There,  mica-schists  and 
ipneissesr  similM  Ux  those  «Ireadj  noticed,  enclose  great  masses 


^^  ■<*^- 


"■'t'    '^iV-'""'   '     "'     '    i'f""     e*   ^i-^^^^T-ï-V^Â^ 


XI.] 


GRANITES  AND  GRANITIC  VEIN-STONESl 


197 


atrpta.     On  one  «de  of  such  a  mass  more  than  sixty  feet  wide 

8tnke  to  the  northwest,  and  so  enclosed  in  the  gmnite  as  to 

structure  of  the  transverse  granité  veins  is  hère  very  marked 
Some  portions  présent  cleavage-planes  of  orthoclase  si  Lcht 

Siadarjfended  gramte^vexns  abound  in  the  adjoining  towns 
kp  and  North  Bethel,  and  sometimes  prient  layeiJTf 
^^  _  .  îix  mches  or  more  in  thickness,  beside  lame,  crvstals  of 
njica,  and  more  rarely  apatite.*  Th^e  veins  ar^o  tTn  i^g 
uW  m  shape  and  bulging  at  intervais,  and  they  somet  me  ^n 
partially  across  the  beds,  which.seem  to  hâve  been  d^end^d 

Il  f  "v!'^   '  '"''  ^^^'^^  "^  ^ï-  «bserved  in  the  tht 
bedded  schists  m  contact  with  some  of  the  veins  in  Brunswtk 

r  noticXir  "^  "^  '''  -^-^-  '--  «^  -y-^^^ 

§20   The  localily  alre«Jy  described  at  DanTiUe  oBer,  on 
mstrucfv,  .x.„ple  „f  .  phe„„„enon  ofen  met  with  ta  thê 

ng  the  action,  which  hâve  deg»ded  the  eoft  enclose  '^eh  1 
«t^nd  o„    ,n  „,hef  on  the  .urface,  and  seem  to  conaLl  tt 

.  tW  117  vLat^o^Î"  •""="  "'"  '""-"  •--*«' 
j     y  suDpiy  veins  or  endogenous  masses  of  verv  limit^rî 

ooneealod  by  the  so,L    Thw  U  weU  eeen  «bont  the  lower  fall. 
of  the  Preaumpaoott,  near  Portland,  whe«  the  mica^ehiTte  wîth 

30    to  40  ,  enclose  large  numbei,  „f  g,»nit,o  »eine   w\Zh 


^% 


ê 


^ 


...:.'.>d.l:",.^M;. 


'«>, 


'.f^' 


■'> 


m 


ôRanites  and  granitic 


w 


SIGNES. 


[XI. 


They  are  sometimes  transvewe  to  the  stratification,  but  more, 

•  ôfteu  parallel,  and,  standing  above  the  soil,  are  very  conspicu- 
ous.  T 

§  21.  We  bave  abcèady  noticed  the  exotic  granités  of  Bidde- 
ford,  which  are  intruded  among  fine-grained  bluish  or  grayish 

•  silicious  strata.     Thèse  latter  are  traversed  by  humerons  veins 
.  of  endogenous  granité,  which  are  very  unlike  in  aspect  to  the. 

intrusive  rock.     One  of  thèse  veins,  near  Saco  Pool,  bas  a  . 
diameter  of  about  an  inch  and  a  half,  and  ptesents  oh  either 
v^  wall  a  lâyer  of  yellowish  crystalline  feldspar  about  one  fourth 

of  an  inch  in  thickness,  which  iiicludes  long  plates  of  dark 
brown  mica.     Thèse  penetrate,  the  central  portion  of  the  vein,\ 
■  \i,  which  is  a  broadly  crystalline  blûish  orthoclase,   enclosing 

small  portions  of  quartz,  after  the  mauner  of  a  graphie  granité. 
,  "  ■  •  The  y^owish  and  less  coarsely  crystalline  feldspar,  with  its 
accompanying  mica,  had  evideptly  Uned  the  walla  of  the  vein, 
while  the  centre  yet  remained  open,  and  had  moreover  entirely 
filled  a  small  latéral  branch.  The  same  conditions  are  seen  in 
the  fillbig  of  other  veins  in  this  vicinity,  which  are  often  much 
laiger,  and  présent  upon  their  walls  bands  of  an  inch  or  two 
of  the  yeUowish  feldipar,  with  mica.  ^  ^ 

The  successive  filling  of  a  granitic  vein  is  still  more  clearly 
shown  in  a  spécimen  from  Sherbrooke,  Nova  Scotia,  which  I  owe 
to  the  kindness  of  Professer  H.  Y.  Hind.  The  vein,  which  is 
seen  to  be  transverse  to  the  adhèrent  fine-grained  mica-schist, 

•  has  a  breadth  of  nearly  four  inches,  about  two  thirds  of  which 
is  symmetrical,  and  is  included  between  two  layers,  perpendic- 
ukr  to  the  walls,  consisting  of  a  fine-grained  mixture  of  white 
feldspar  and  quartz,  each  about  one  fourth  of  an  inch  thick, 
and  marked  by  subordinate  zones,  more  or  less  quartzose. 
.Within  thèse  two  bands  is  a  coarser  aggregate,  consisting  of 
two  feldspars,  with  some  quartz  and  muscovite,  plates  of  which, 
and  crystals  of  pink  orthoclase;  penetrate  an  irregular  layer  of 
smoky  quartz  varying  ^m  one  eighth  to  one  half  an  inch  in 
diameter.  This  fills  the  centre  of  the  symmetrical  portion  of 
the  vein,  on  one  side  of  which  is  the  mica-schist,  while  the 

.  other  ia  bounded  by  a  band  of  more  thftn  b^Hf  «&  Inoh  of  fi»»- 


I#" 


^:4 


,ivr 


\ 


'*j^S^,ïÇ>tf<f'^ 


'  ^ 


XI.]  GKANITES  AND  GftANITIc' VEIN-STONES.         '  ^199 

c^tf  f?f ^  ""''^  yeUowish^n  mica,   pre«enting  W 

crystda  of  feldspar  near  the  outer  margin.  whei;  it  is  succeS 

.     by  a  layer  of  puresmoky  vitreous  quartz  of  about  the^e   ' 

tkckne8s,.whose  outer  surface,  agamst  the  wall,  «howsTr^S 

readrconnectibna^hr^m::k3in§'^  "^^  ^ 

Dana  bas  described  and  fkured   a   oJ«,:i  .  . 

banded  witb  quartz,  observed  bv  L    T  v^'  ^"'*'°  ^'^"' 
(Mandai  of  Gedog  "  7^3)  t  and  iL'.'"^^  "  ^'"^ 
tained   that  such  ^nitic  veins    iiie  ^JT     ^^"''"'  """'"- 
■  Iodes,  are  clearly  c^cret  oïl;  'n  Ïeir  ori    "^  -f  "ifen,us,  " 
.  filted  by  slow 'and   successive   depol  S  "^^ 

tions.     His  testimony  to  th^viewswS  ÎT  ''T""'  ' -^"- 

Chesterfield,  Middletowq,  aild  Haddam,  seem,  from  ,deS 

.  tu>ns  and  from  their  minerai  consfituenH  to  be  simX  tlî^s"^  ' 

of  Marne,  aWy  mentioned.    With  the  exception  Tf  RoX 

W„  .  ^'r'  ^^-^-^'^^-  !«-"«-  are  as  yelty 
ki^n  to  me  from  spécimens  and  descriptions:  It  is  mZ 
jorthy  that  at  the  former  the  finely  cr^stalli^  be^ls  a^ 
direcUy  ,^i,edded  in  vitreous  quartz.  andThe  same  ia  Zec2 
^ith  the  beryk  of  Acworth  and  the  blue  «.d  green  tounpli  1    ' 

0  cu^t  BucITm  ^'^^^'^^^^^^  ^'"^'^  ^'  thi^Wter 
occurs  m  Buckfield,  Maine,  describçd  to  me  by  ^fe^or  Brush, 


-f  From  U.  S.  Expïorfag  Ëxpedition„.Report  on  the  Gteology,  1849, 


p.  670. 


'*?■■ 


f^^i^  dr 


.'fl" 


^i^y 


,200 


GRANITES  AND  GRANITIC  VEIN-8T0NES. 


[XI. 


-J" 


vrjjtere  lai^ge  ûolated  crystals  of  white  orthoclase,  nearly  color- 
léss  moscovite,  aijd  brown  tourmaline  occur  in  a  vein  of  vitre- 
ous  quartz.  At  Paris  and  at  Hebronit'^Maine,  tourmalines  are 
found  penetrating  crystals  of  quartz.  The  flat&ned  tourma- 
lines and  gamets  ïound  in  muscovite  at  several  localities  in 
New  England  are  well  known  to„  collectors,  and  a  curious  ex- 
ample ôf  enclosure  bas  been  observed  by  Professer  Brush  at 
Hebron,  where  crystals  of  muscovite  are  encased  in  lepidolite. 

§  23.  The  following  lisj;  iucludes  the  principal  minerai 
species  found  in  thèse  granitic  veins  in  New  England  :  apatite, 
amblygonite,  triphylliîie,  autunite,  yttrocerite,  orthoclase,  al- 
bite,  oligoclase,  spodumene,  iolite,' muscovite,  biotit^e,  lepidohte, 
cookeite,  chlorite,  "chlorophyllite,  garnet,  epidote,  tourmaline, 
béryl,  zircon,  quartz,  chrysoberyl,  autolnolite,  cassiterite,  rutile, 
brookite,  uraninite,  columbite,  pyrochlore,  scheelîte,  and  bis- 
muthine.  As  I  am  not  aware  that  chlorite  bas  nitherto  been 
mentioned  as  a  constituent  of  thèse  veins,  it  may  be  said  that 
it  occurs  in  one  at  Albany,  Maine.  To  the  above  should 
be  added  the  rare  species  nepheline,  cancrinite,  and  sodalite, 
which  bave  long  been  known  in  bowlders  of  a  graniterlike  rock 
in  Maine.  According  to  information  given  me  by  Professor 
Brush,  green  elseolite  Avith  white  orthoclase  and  black  biotite 
occurs  in  a  granitic  vein,  twenty  feet  in  breadth,  lately  observed 
in  the  northwest  part  of  Litchfield,  Maine. 

§  24.  We  bave  seen  that  thèse  endogenous  veins  are  found 
alike  in  the  gneisses,  mica-schists,  limestones,  and  quartzose 
strata  of  this  région.  They  are  also  met  with  in  the  eruptive 
gi'anites,  small  fissures  in  which  are  sometimes  filled  with 
coarsely  crystalline  orthoclase,  smoky  quartz,  varions  micas,  and 
zircon.  Examples  of  this  are  seen  in  the  granités  of  Hamp- 
stead,  New  Brunswick,  and  Mount  Uniacke,  Nova  Scotia.  The 
fine  green  feldspar  of  Cape  Ann,  Massachusetts,  and  the  micas, 
cryophyllite  and  lepidomelaûe,  with  zircon,  described  by  Pro- 
fesser Cooke,  from  the  same  région,  occur  in  veins  in  the  hom- 
blendic  granités  of  that  locality.  Small  veins  ciitting  a  some- 
what  siroilar  rock  at  Marblehead  contain  crystallized  groen 
epidofaa  witb  wbitfi  qiiajly.  and  red  orthoclase. 


.•,  !      4m  À. 


«scJaK&-'J| 


Rn'*^" 


'-*??$%■. 


.s«. 


-.^T 


XI]  GRANITES  AND  GRANITIC  VEIN-STONES.  201 

§  25.  The  Vteins  which  we  havo  described  are  ircquentlv  of 
wy  h..ted  extent.  and  seem  to.occupy  short  S  "  fuli 
usures,  whde  m  other  cases  the  Wral  àggrec^ates  wlÏÏ 
eharactenze  thera  occur  i„  nests  or  géodes.     T^C  L^^ 

the  red  micaceous  granité  is  in  one  part  very  ^ble  and^Z 
aents  in^gular  geode-like  cavities,  soLtimes^set^Tis"^ 
diaineter.  which  are   partially  iiUed  by  i^diating  prSns   of  • 
Wack  tourmaline,  accon^pàniedwith  quart,  and  alL'e ";!; 
and  more  rarely  smaU  octahedrons  of  purple  fluorite.     The  en 
closxng  g^^uxte  i.  composed  o^eep  «d  orthoclase,  wi^  s  J«Ji' 
portions  of  a  whxtetrichnic  feldspar,  smoky  quartz  and  brack 

Tf  1  f  ,      r'  '''î  "'  ^^'  P^^''  ^'^^  the  description 

of  the  famous  locahty  of  feldspars,  etc.,  at  Fariolo,  near  Ba veno     ' 
m  northern  Italy.      The  rock.of  that  place,  described  Ta 
gramte,  resembks,  in  a  spécimen  befox.  me,  some  of   hÏinTru 
sive  gramtes  of  New  Brunswick,  and  contins  a  pink  and  a 
.  white  feldspar,  with  a  little  black  mica.     It  includ'rvei^  of 
gmphic  gmnite,  a^d  aiso  spheroidal  masses,  wl^ich  differ  in  tex- 
tu^  from  the  mass^of  the  rock,  and  px^ent  géodes  of  considér- 
able sxze,  hxxed  wxth  fine  large  red  and  white  crystals  of  orthl 
elase,  accompanied  by  albite,  epidote,  quartz,  fluorite   aTd  a 
^enxsh  mxca  (or  chlorite),  aU  of  which,\ccoriing  t    Wt 
ar.  so  mxngled  and  interlocked  as  to  show  that  they  ax*  o   con 
texnporaneous  ox.çn      To  thèse  are  to  be  added.  L  occ'^Z 
m  the  géodes,  prehnite,  calcite,  hyalite,  and  specular  iron  ^h^ 
orthoclase  crystals  often  We  adhering  to  their  oddoZ  f 

^hSflrrr  :?\r'^  ^^  ^^ertrtrtn  r: 

Whxèh  they  are  attached.  The  crystals  of  orthoclase,  xnox^over 
frequently  presexxt  hoUowed-out  or  hopper-shaped  fa^r  whTch 
^x^et  happxly  describea  as  resulting  Lm  the  form  n"'  o"  the 

nTr;      r^T'""  °'  *^«  ^^«*^'«'  -hen  the  material  was 
not  tufficxent  for  their  completion.    A  process  axxalogous  to  II 
18  often  seen  xn  cxystallizatio„i  whether  from  fusion  solution 
or  vaporous  coxxdensation,  giving  xdse  in  some  cases  t^nS 


^°*^     J^ôornet  ascrxbes  the  formation  of  the  géodes  in  the 


*A)  iJL^ 


,-.....^ 


202 


GRANITES   AND   GRANITIC  VEIN-STONES. 


[XL 


granité  of  Fariolo  to  a  process  of  shrinkîng,  and  a  subséquent 
ségrégation  Hlling  the  resulting  cavities,  in  which  he  is  forced 
to  recognize  the  intervention  of  watér,  though  by  no  means  ad- 
mitting  the  aqueous  origitt  of  veins,  since  he  holds  even  those 
of  quartz  to  hâve  been  foimed  by  igneous  injection.  (Gréologie 
Lyonnaise,  *^78.) 

§  26.  When  we  consider  the  cause  which  has  produced  the 
fissures  in  the  mica-schists  and  gneisses  of  New  England, 
which  hold  the  g|;anitic  veins  lalready  described,  it  is  to  be  re- 
marked  that  their  comparative  abimdance,  theijc  shortn^  and 
their  irregularity,  distinguish  them  from  the  fissures  wmch  are 
filled  with  eruptive  rocks.  Examples  of  ithe  latter  may  be  seen 
near  Banville^  Maine,  where  dikes  of  fine-gramed  dolerite  are 
posteriortb^  the  endogenous  granitic  veins  hère  occurring  in  the 
mica-schist.  Thèse  dikes  may  be  supposed  to  be  dépendent 
upon  movements  in  the  earth's  crust  opening  deep  fissures 
which  connected  with  some  softened  rock  far  below.  Through 
such  openings  were  extravasated  the  exotic  rocks,  whether 
gramtes  or  dolerites,  —  more  or  less  homdgeneous  mixtures, 
ofteh  widely  différent  in  composition  from  the  enca^ng  rocks. 
The  endogenous  veins,  on  the  contrary,  are  distinguished  not 
only  by  their  more  or  less  heterogeneous  and  often  banded 
structure,  but  by  the  fact  that  their  principal  constituents  are 
gënerally  the  minerai  species  common  in  the  adjacent  strata. 

§  27.  Volger  has  attributed  the  formation  of  the  openings  , 
containing  cohcretionary  veins  ïo  the  force  of  crystallization, 
which  is  shown  to  be  very  great  in  the  congélation  of  water 
and  the  crystallizing  of  salts  in  cavities  and  fissures.  Such  a 
process  once  commenced  in  an  opening  in  a  rock  would,  he 
conceived,  be  sufficient  to  make  still  wider  the  fissure,  which 
might  be  fed  by  fresh  solutions  passing  by  capiUarity  through 
the  pores  of  the  rock.  If  this  process  were  to  become  concen- 
trated  aro^d  several  .points,  the  intermediate  spaces  might  be 
80  opened  that  free  crystallization  could  go  on,  resulting  in  the 
production  ôf  goedes  in  veins  thus  formed. 

Fournet,  on  the  other  hand,  suggests  that  contraction  in 
the  cooling  of  empted  granités  gaye  origin  to  the  fissures  and 


.  / 


*é.v„M 


^*^\  *^_^ 


Y^ff 


\ 


«•]  GRANITES  AND  GRANITIC  VEIN-STONES. 


203 

attendant  „po„  0,?^^^         .'  ''"^  "'  '=°°'~«°'^ 

The  iMion,  tta  pMuced  in  .,1^  ^."^^  «"™»  Ih^in. 
leea  compleWy  reS  if  we  »  ""f  '  '*=°™  ""'"'  " 

i^gular  n-a^aes,  .Tù"  L^""  ^"!  '[=  e»»-««'  8-iea, 

quenlly  lo  tlie  one  in»f  i™,^  Mtervene,  and  nmy  act  Subae- 

noticed  in  eonn«  iont^raot  'f   tr'^''f."-'-  «^X 
veine  of  Maine,  »hich  11  w  !  «""«etionari-  «Mitio 

« J  dtplr  l°sl'?f  S:  S;:  ""  "r^  •""  '»  «■«  «-'«  ■ 

tn.ctionrf  slrn.,  *  i^".™    T'"'"'  ">""  "»  -"- 

«  26),  «tZtoHl'n^rna^tr ;'S  "'  Tr^ '' 
euiehed  fmm  the  claas  of  vei"!  falldi    ÏL  ^^  ■•"»- 

openinge  in  »-hich  Zv  1    ",  ^      "'"««'''«l.  "nasmucli  as  the 
^ih  the  eX^  ofZri    T*^  »videntlyoommaniealed 


%--.>,'^;^-.  .    1 


4<    «  ^. 


^^ 


w 


204 


GRANITES  AND  GRANITIC  VEIÎf-STONES. 


[XL 


show  thèse  veina  to  hâve  been  deposited*  in  fisSures  communi- 
catrng  with  the  surfaco-waters  of  the  liassic  period.  For  a 
description  of  thèse  veins  by  Mr.  Charles  Moore,  see  the  E©- 
port  of  the  British  Association  for  1869,  and  Amer.  Jour,  of 
Science  (2),  L.  365.  Similar  eAidence  is  afforded  by  the  exist- 
ence- of  rounded  pebbles  .imbedded  in  veins,  as  observed  in 
Bohemia  and  also  in  Comwall,  where  numcrous  pebbles  both 
of  slat^  and  ■  quartz  were  found  at  a  depth  of  six  hundred  feet 
in  a  Iode,  cemented  by  cassiterite  and  sulphuret  of  copper.  (Ly-- 
ell,  Student's  Eléments  of  Geology,  p.  593.)  Not  less  instruct- 
ive in  this  connection  are  the  observations  of  Mr.  J.  Arthur 
Phillips,  on  the  silicious  vein-stones  now  in  process  of  forma- 
tion in  open  fissures  in  Nevada.  (L.  E.  and  D.  Phil.  Mag.  (4), 
XXXVI.  321,  422  ;  Amer.  Jour,  of  Science  (2),  XLVII.  138.) 
We  canuot  doubt  that  the  ancient,  like  thèse  modem  veins 
hâve  been  channels  for  the  discharge  of  subterranean  minerai 
waters  ;  and  it  would  seem  that  while  the  déposition  of  the  in- 
yCrusting  materials  on  the  walls  of  the  fissure  is  in  part  due  to 
cooling,  and  in  part  perhaps  to  infiltration,  in  some  cases,  of 
précipitants  from  latéral  sources,  it  is  chiefly  to  be  ascribed  to 
the  réduction  of  solveut  power  conséquent  upon  the  diminu- 
tion of  pressure  as  the  waters  rise  nearer  to  the  surface.*  This 
conclusion,  deducible  from  the  researches  of  Sorby  on  the  rela- 
tion of  pressure  to  solubility  {ante,  page  65),  I  hâve  pointed^ 
out  in  the  Geological  Magazine  for  February,  1868,  p.  57. 
See  also  Amer.  Jour,  of  Science  (2),  L.  27.    "  , 

§  29,  There  is  evidently  a  distinction  to  be  drawn  between 
veins  which  ]iave  been   open   channels   and  the  segregated 

•  Of  this  a  remarkable  example  was  afforded  in  1866  at  Goderich,  in  Ontario, 

■  where,  in  a  boring  at  à  depth  of  1,000  feet,  a  bed  of  rock -sait  was  met,  from 

which  for  a  time  a  saturated  or  rather  aupersatnrated  brine  was  obtained. 

As  an  évidence  of  this,  I  saw  a  cube  of  pure  sait,  one  fourth  of  an  inch  in 

.  diameter,  which  had  formed  upon  and  around  a  projecting  point  of  au  iron 

valve  in  the  pump,  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.    The  liquid  beneath  a 

pressure  of  1,000  feet  of  brine,  equal  )to  about  1,200  feet  of  water,  or  thirty- 

six  atmosphères,  having  taken  ûpimorn  sait  thim  it  oould  hold  at  the  ordinary 

pressure,  deposited  a  portion  of  it  as  it  reached  the  surface,  and  actually  ob- 

stnicted  thereby  the  action  of  the  pump.    After  a  few  months  of  pumping, 

^rrèaweyer,  th«  welteeasedrto  afford  a  f ully  «^uiateérbriae.    ^ — ~ . . 


4a^      ^  î-  ^.     1 


_'  A»'£-««.«  teiafi^j«!#!j.£  i>î 


T^f^^'^ijifcf'^    T--^-- 


^  H.]  BANITE8  AND  GRANITIC  VEIN-STONES.  205 

niasses  and  géodes  formed  in   cavities  ^^hich  appear  to  hav« 
been  everywhere  liniited  by  the  enclosing  rock.     L  the  fomi 
^  a  free  circulation  of  the  niineral  sLtion  w  ù W  pZu 
whJe  m  the  latter  there  could  be  no  ,.newal  of  it  except  bv 

tween  the  contents  of  géodes  and  fisaure-veins    whether  in 
tX:^Tthtdep:S'"  notsensibl^affect  the  .ine«I  constl 

h.s  investiga^ons  of  the  Z-^ÂesZX^^tt^s 
hat  the  quartz  whieh  occurs  with  cassiterite,  mic^  and  fdd 
par  m  the  gi^nitic  veins  of  ComwaU  must  Lve^i^^tiz^ 

pressure,  conditions  which  we  can  hardlv  8iinnn<.«  t«  i 

being  calcite,  quartz,  and  carbonate  of  lanthanum  Tpan^  te^ 
.  SmaU  cryçtals  of  e,ne,.ld  ai.  disseniinated  through  th^a^S: 
laceous,  sornewhat  magnesian  limestone,  which  contains!2e. 
over.  a  stoaU  amount  of  glucina  in  a  condition  soluble  in  Tcids 
Oewy,  Annaleà  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique  LUI  1     S        À 
Foumet,  GéoL  Lyonnaise,  455.)      ^^    '  ^~^^'  "°** 

difJ'  ^°/!l««^7«  °^*y  *dd  the  prod^tion  of  varions  hy- 
drated  «ystelhzed  silicates,  including  apophyllite,  hamiotome 
and  chabazite,  during  the  historié  periedlathe  malonr^of  the 
old  Roman  baths  at  Plombiè^  and  Luxeuil,  and  by  the  Z 
tionof  watersat  tempemtui^s  of  from  46°  to  70°  Centi«rX^ 

b  te  m  the  lacustnne  tertiary  limestones  of  Auveigne  ;  apophvl- 


Uf^  •         -—--""-  «=xw»iy  iimesiones  01  Auveigne  :  apoDhvl- 


.  '.^rtï'j' 


^^^£0M^^^^^hiÀÂf^xJA.î^' 


206 


GRANITES  AND  GRANITIC  VEIN-ST0NE8. 


[XI. 


a  récent  deposit  in  Iceland.  The  association  of  such  hydrated 
silicates  wit|i  orthoclase,  as  already  noticed  (§  13),  and  as  de- 
scribed  by  Scheerer,  where  natrolite  and  orthoclase  envelop 
each  other,  showing  their  contemporaneous  formation,  with 
many  otheijfacts  of  a  similar  kind,  lead  to  the  conjecture  that 
orthoclase,  like  béryl  and  quartz,  and  perhaps  some  other  con- 
stituents  of  granitic  veins,  may  hâve  crystalliœd  in  many  cases 
at  températures  much  lower  than  those  determined  by  Sorby, 
and  that  the  conditions  of  their  production  include  a  considér- 
able range  of  température;  a  conclusion  which  is,  however, 
probably  true  to'some  extent  of  zeolites  also.  %     .,  ■-: 

§  32.  It  is  now  proposed  to  consider  the  granitic  vein-stoiies 
found  in  Laureutian  rocks.  The  stratified  rocks  of  this  ancient 
gneissic  séries,  as  I  hâve  elsewhere  pointed  out,  differ  consider- 
ably  from  those  of  the  White  Mountain  séries,  which,  with 
their  vein-stones,  hâve  been  traated  of  in  §§  16  -  23. 

The  Laurentian  séries,  the  ft)wer  Laurentian  of  Sir  "William 
Logan,  as  studied  by  him  in  a  region  to  the  north  of  the  Otta- 
wa, the  only  area  in  which  it  has  yet  been  examined  in  détail, 
appears  to  consist  of  an  altemation  of  conformable  gneissic  and 
calcareous  formations,  The  latter  are  three  in  number,  each 
from  1,000  to  2,000  feet  or  more  in  thickness,  and  separated 
by  still  more  considérable  formations  of  gneiss  and  quartzite,  a 
mass  of  gneiss  of  great  but  unknown  thickness  forming  the  base. 
(Geology  of  Canada,  page  45.)  The  gneissic  rocks  of  ÛiQ^ 
séries  are  very  firm  and  cohérent,  reddish  or  grayish  in  cÔTor, 
often  very  cparse  grained  and  granitoid,  sometimes  with  but 
obscure  marks  of  stratification  ;  and  frequently  porphyritic  from 
the  présence  of  large  cleavable  masses  of  reddish  orthoclase, 
occasionally  with  a  white  triclinic  feldspar.  They  are  often 
homblendic,  and  sometimes  contain  small  quantities  of  dark 
colored  mica.  A  white  granitoid  gneiss,  composed  chiefly  of 
orthoclase  and  quartz,  sometimes  coutains  an  abundance  of  red 
iron-garnet.  The  latter  minerai  is  often  disseminated,  or  forms 
subordinate  beds  in  the  quartzites  of  the  séries. 

§  33.  With  the  crystalline  limestones  of  the  calcareous  parts 
of  the  séries  are  often  fottnd  strata  made  up  of  other  minerais, 


(•.■Vît^'J,"*» 


•♦<•'  t. 


XI.J 


GRANITES  AND  ORANITIC  VEIN-STONES. 


207 
to  the  entirê  exclusion  of  carbonate  of  lime,  byan  admixture  of 

pure,  and  at  other  ti 
with  quartz  and  orth 
serpentine,  magnetitiB, 
rocks  are  generally 
sometimes   very  coaree 
great  thickness,  and  atié 


*of  pyroxene,  sometimes  nearly 

^  with  a  magnesian  mica,  or 

associated  with  hornblende, 

"     iphite.     Thèse  pyroxenite 

litoid   in  structure,   and 

They  occasionally  assume  a 

often  interstrotified  with  beds  of 


Thèse  stmta,  marked  by^he  p^l^aL  !?  \  "^""^ 
ma^è^ian  silicates,  appear  rZTT  "f"^"^"^  ""^ 
each  of  the  limesto^e  Ciol  of  Z  T  l-  *°  '"'"P*"^ 

howéver,  developed  -toT^I^  !„.:'"'  ''^''•°^^' 
extent  ^^  "^  """^  somètimes   to  a  less 

§34.  I  hâve  elsewhere  called  at^ntion  to  lfe.f  t>,„f'  .x, 
highly  micaceous  schista  and  ihe  a^lli  es  oT  t^ln  m 
tam  and  White  Mountain  séries  ofTckfa^  the  Gv^rxUoun- 

:s  :?  r  i^r"-  -^  î-thter  t^eiits 

Laurentiai  whill'  T  ^"^  micaceous  tpck  in  the 


% 


/ 


/ 


sj^^^mà^ 


'V    ■,'r     ,ï       ,u.-> 


/^ 


n'""''''\ 
Il   "  " .  '-M, 


,:>*. 


"Sfl^ 


208 


GRANITES   AND  GRANITIC   VEIN-8T0NES. 


[XI. 


«9» 


tliat  of  .the  harder  gneissic  portions.  The  above  observations 
on  the  lithological  character  of  the  stratilied  rocks  are  impor- 
tant on  account  of  the  relations  between  thèse  and  the  included 
veins,  in  which  the  characteristic  minerais  of  the  gneissic  and 
calcareous  rocks  arè  often  found  associated. 
,  §  35.  The  history  of  thèse  veins,  as  seen  in  the  Lanrentian 
rocks  of  the  Laurentides  in  Canada,  the  Adirondacks  of  northern 
New  York,  and  the  Highlands  of  southem  New  York  and  New 
Jersey,  has  been  discussed  at  length  by  the  author  in  an  essay 
on  The  Mineralogy  of  the  Laurentian  Limestones,  in  the  Eeport 
of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada  for  1863-66,  pages  181  - 
223.*  In  this  essay,  which  will  be  frequently  referred  to  in 
the  présent  paper,  the  vein-stones  found  in  the  Laurentian  rocks 
hâve  been  noticed  under  three  heads  :  First,  metalliferous  veins 
carrying  galenite,  blende,  pyrite,  and  chalcopyrite  in  a  gangue  of 
calcite,  sometimes  with  celestine  and  fluorite  ;  thèse,  which  are 
of  palœozoic  âge  or  still  younger,  eut  the  Potsdam  sandstone,  the 
Calciferous  sand-rock,  and  probably  also  the  overlying  Trenton 
limestones.  Second,  quartzo-feldspathic  veins  with  muscovite, 
tourmaline,  zircon,  etc.  Thèse  veins  I  bave  described  as  passing 
by  insensible  gradations  into  the  third  class,  in  which  calcito 
and  apatite,  with  pyroxene,  phlogopite,  and  other  calcareous  and' 
magnesian  silicat^  predélninate,  though  frequently  accompa- 
nied  by  quartz  and  orthoclase.  Thèse  veins  are  older  than  tlie 
Potsdam  santldtone,  which  rests  upon  their  eroded  outcrops, 
and  sometimes  includes  worn  fragments  of  apatite  derived  from 
them. 

§  36.  It  is  thèse  last  two  classes  which  it  is  proposed  to  con- 
Blder  in  the  présent  pape»  under  the  uame  of  granitic  vein-stones. 
In  justification  of  the  extension  of  the  term  "granitic"  to  the 
^hole  of  this  séries  of  veins,  it  must  be  repeated,  that  it  is  not 
possible  to  draw  a  line  of  distinction  between  those  in  which 
quartz  #^d  orthoclase  are  the  characteristy  minerais,  9nd  |^oso 
in  whïch  calcite,  apatite,  pyroxene,  bxvT  phlogopite  prevail, 

*  This  essay  is  reprinted,  with  some  additions,  in  the  Report  of  the  Régents 
of  the  Univereity  of  New  York  for  1867,  Appendix  E.  The  reader's  attention 
ia  calledto  the  note  on  the  Haatiiiga  rocks,  at  the  close  of  that  reprint  _    


%* 


a 


,  ^i^tl'J^Vi'-iiiaàiiaÙaK*- 


■.h     :::A^?. 


Xr.]  GRANITES  AND  GRANITIC  VEIN-STONES  209 

in  Burgess,  Ontario,  the  sides  ofa  wf  ''''  '"'"'"P^^' 

(American  Journal  Science  (1)  Xli   303>     rT  ï  '^'' 

a™  derivedX™  thU    LIT    """l  **  ""^  """«"J» 
S»heererandD„rher  1^       '■„'""'  "■"   °''«™lio„s  of 

and  sbow,  as  I  hâve —  in  ih  ,  ^^^^  America, 

in  détail, 'and  fofjeh  ^iXTll.Îl'T'-'^-'^- 
which  exi8t8  between  the  two     T  Tk  ^*  '''""^"*^ 

Gneiss  formation  of  Scanditlvia    Ll      '""'"''   '^""^"^^ 
gneiss,  or  in  a  imeissnid  ^'^T"''''^}^^^  ^ems  occur  either  in 

«sociated  with  cryZnnlf    ï'  "^'^''^'  '"^  "'^'  ^^^  ^hole 

ingtoLub^eThXro^^^^^^ 

hornblende,  ani  sZlite  Z  ^"'"*''"^"^  ''*'^'*«'  «P^t't«. 
reçus  and  magnesTn  i  '  ?  'T'""^  "^^^'^"^  «^  «»"  calca- 
gatesofort^raL"'-;,^--  ^^^^'^^'^  "^^- 
««  a  whole.  thouKh  freoZtW  ^  T"  ^'^''^'  ^^'"^  ^«'°«' 
essentially  «ranS  Z2     \  **^»°d,„g  in  lamellar  calcite,  as 

^*^"^  or  sécrétion,  in  opposition  to  Durocher 


210 


GRANITES  AND  GEANITIC  VEIN-STONES. 


[XI. 


v.» 


who  lopked  upon  them  as  having  been  .fonned  by  igneoua 
injection.  •  , 

§  38.  The  principal  minerai  species  known  in  the  correspond- 
ing  vein-stones  of  tho  Laurentian  rocks  of  North  America  are 
the  following  :  calàte,  dolomite,  fluorite,  apatite,  serpentine, 
^chrysolite,  chondrodite,  wollastonite,  hornblende,  pyroxene,  pyral- 
lolite,  gieseckite,  scapolite,  petalite,  orthoclase,  oiigoclase,  albùe, 
muscovite^  pMogopitè,  seybertite,  tourmaline,  gamet,  idocrase,  epi- 
dote,  allanite,  zircon,  spinel,  chrysoberyl,  corundum,  quarts, 
9p/iene,  rutile,  menaccanite,  magnetite,  hématite,  pyrite,  and 
grajihite.  To  which  may  be  added  somè  rarer  species,  such  as 
tephroite>  Inllemite,  franklinite,  zincite,  warwickite,  found  in  a 
few  locaUties  only,  and  others  of  less  importance.  Of  the 
above  liât,  those  species  whose  names  are  in  italics  hâve  been 
recognized  as  constituent  minerais  in  the  stratified'  rocks  in 
which  the  veins  occur. 

.  The  most  important  species  in  thèse  vein-stones  are  calcite, 
quartz,  orthoclase,  phlogopito,  pyroxene,  apatite,  and  graphite, 
of  which  some  one  ou  more  will  generally  be  found  to  prevail 
in  the  veins  in  question.  The  greater  part  of  the  species  named 
in  the  first  list  were  observed  by  Daubrée  in  the  veins  near 
Arendal,  and  to  thèse  he  adds  axinite,  gadolinite,  and  more 
rarely  béryl  and  leucite  ;  *  while  in  the  island  of  Utoë,  asso- 
ciated  with  iron-ores,  crystalline  limestones,  and  hornblendic 
rocks  passing  into  gneiss,  are  similar  granitic  vein-stones  con- 
taining  orthoclase  and  quartz,  with  tourmaline,  cassiterite,  and, 
in  the  middle  of  the  veins,  petaUte,  spodumene,  and  lepidolite. 
This  association  is  the  more  worthy  of  notice,  as  the  only  othor 
known  locality  of  petalite  (if  we  except  the  castor  of  Elba)  is 
in  the  brystalline  limestone  of  Bolton,  Massachusetts,  where  it 
occurs,  probably  in  a  vein-stone,  with  scapolite,  hornblende, 
pyfcpxene,  chrysolitey  spinel,  apatite,  and  sphene. 

♦  For  a  notice  of  the  occurrence  of  leucite  in  thèse  veins,  and  also  in  veins  in 
Mexico,  see  the  author's  Contributions  to  Lithology  (Amer.  Journal  Science, 
(2),  XXXVII.  264).  Acconling  to  Garrigou,  this  rare  species  occnrs  both  well 
cr;^sUllize(l  and  in  compact  porphyroid  masses,  in  dioritic  roclts  (ophites),  at 
Lusbé  in  the  valley  of  Aspé,  in  the  Pyrennees.  (Bull.  Soc.  OeoL  de  Fr.  (2). 
XXV.  727.) 


:m'^. 


'î»'"»*ï!!v.   -jjfi'r 


^I-]  GMNITES  AND  CRAXmc  VEm-âTOXE*  2U 

structure,  their  drueyC^^r  ^JT""-  '"^  '^«^  '^^"'^^^ 
modes  of  enclosure  oCotL  .  ^t"^  "^crustations  and 

of  partial  solution  succeed^rfhT^^  ''^  '^°^  *  P"'^^^» 
■  amngement  of  the  ^«^11^1.^1,  ,f  "f^"'^"'^"-  ^  ^anded 
aften  well  n^arked  Attht  th^  îi''  "'"  ^  *^«  --  - 
crystalline  hornbl^d*  0^;,^  n/  f"  T^  ^  ^"^^^^  ^^^1^ 
^m  be  fiiled^^ntlTaS^il  1^^  ^^^  «^  t^e  vein 

filiing  the  centre  ofâéteT!rf,^''"'^'^^^*M"^rtz, 
other  instences  portionTo/m  Vl  "St  ""*"^  '"  §  '''     '^  ' 
of  apatite,  pyroxene,  or  l^o^Z^^ T"^''^  '^  ^^^^  ^ 
wh  oh  in  son^e  other  part  oï^^^h  !?  îî  "^^^'^"^  «?«-' 
prolongation,  wifl  «o  far  predominnr     .         ^'  '^'"•'  ^'  '"  '*« 
aspect  of  a  coai^ly  crysSneCl     r  ^^'  *^  '^  "^  ^^e 
apatite  ar^  often  obse^^  e^L^i''"^L^''°^*«»«-     P™"^  of 
the  centre  of  the  ^S^t^^SZ^  ^"^  "*^'^  «^'^^  *«^-«i 
calcite  or  onother  min^rJ  and^T  "^  "^'^  ^  ^"«^  ^^^^ 
with  crystala.     Drusy  :::titt  o"f  £li^;  I^^  ^'T  ^^°^  ' 
and  sevemi  feet  in  lenirth  and  H«^k     5^        °*  '"  ^"^^th 
in  thèse  veins  in  OnS  ^^  «*«>metinies  n,et  with      " 

-un!;  i!tl!;:rth'rr:of  ^'^r^r^  «rigin  is  seen  in  the 

an^anprtsn.:;'   l^rreSS^rr*"^  ^^- 

«opite  in  pyroxeL,  in  "^  «"en  t  Z'^  ^'  ^'^" 
crystals  or  rounded  cristalline  „^1\V'"«'^«  *P^*^t«J 
in  apatite  and  in  cx^Bri,  JaZ^^TT  f  ^^"^^  ""^  imbedded 
(pai^site)  i„  py^^^     t^^t^"^  ^'^^  of  hornblende 

pyroxene,  and  both,  in  their  tu^. 2^  "  ^"^  ^^^^^  of 

tais  of  epidote.  c;yZ^:^ ';.';;j^,:'^'^'  ^^  -^  c,^ 

alike  in  orthodase,  quartz.  calZ  nM         !  """""''  ^*  ""«^«^ 
^§41.  Another^LeaWe^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
of  thèse  veina  ia  the  phenZ^T^Lld  "r'?"^  ^"«^ 
where  the  alternai  ,....„  ..  Cr^tr/Ty^t:;  1^  Î^: 


>i^.         .'■ 


_^  i*,J^  «l^iïjfeK.  \S,h^        *  .  -  *'..'>- 


f 


mi 


212 


GRANITES  AND  GRANITIC   VEIN-STONES. 


[XI. 


plete,  while  the  space  within  either  remains  eoipty,  or  is  filled 
Màthother  minerais,  often  unsjTnmetrically  arrangea.     This- 
•  condition  of  things   is  rpndered   intelligible   by  the   forma- 
tion of  sinùlaip  hollow  crystals  during  the  cooling  of- certain 
saline  solutions,  as  ibr  example  potash-nitrate.     Small  hollow 
prisms  of  red   and  green  tourmaline,  closely  resembling  the 
hollow  nitre  crystals,   are   commoîi   in  the  well-known  gra- 
nitic  vein-stone  of  Paris,  Maine.     I   hâve  elsewhere  referred 
"^to  the  formation  of  such  moulds  or  skeleton-crystals  as  having 
taken  place  in  vein-cavities,  and  as  serving  to  explain  many 
iHti   cases  of  enclosure  of  miner»>l  species.     (Address  ta  the  A.  A.  A. 
"S.,  Indianapolis,  187*1.     Paper  XIII.  of  the  présent  Volume.) 
In  addition  to  the  examples  there  cited,  the  Laurentian  veiu- 
stones  afford   some   curious   cases.     Thus  a  prism   of'yellow 
idocrase  half  an  inch  in  diameter  from  a  vein  in  Greii ville, 
.    Ontario,  composed  chiefly  of  orthoclase  and  pyroxene,  is  seen 

J       when  broken  across  to  consist  of  a  thin  shell  of  idocrase  filled 
with   a  confused   crystalline  aggregate   of  orthoclase,   which 
encloses  a  small  crystal  of  zircon.     In  like  manner  large  crys-' 
tais  of  zircon  from  similar  veins  in  St.  Lawrence  County,  New 
York,  are  sometimes  shells  filled  with  càlcite. 

§  42.  The  rounded  forms  of  certain  crystals  in  the  Lauren- 
tian vein-stones  were,  I  believe,  first  noticed  by  Emmons,  who 
observed  that  crystals  of  quartz  imbedded  in  carbonate  of  lime 
from  Kossie,  New  York,  hâve  their  angles  so  much  rounded 
that  the  crystalline  form  is  nearly  or  quite  eflfaced,  the  surfaces 
being  at  the  same  time  smooth  and  shining.  This  appearance 
is  occasionally  observed  in  other  localities,  and  is  not  confined 
to  quartz  alone,  crystals  of  calcite  and  of  apatite  sometimes 
exhibiting  the  same  peculiarity.  At  the  same  time  the  brthof- 
cluse,  scapolite,  pyroxene,  and  zircon,  which  are  associated  with 
Ijhese  rounded  crystals,  préserve  ail  their  sharpness  of  outline, 
as  was  observed  by  Emmons  for  the  orthoclase  in  contact 
with  the  crystals  of  quartz  just  described.     He  suggested  that 

I  the  rounded  outlines  of  thèse  crystals  were  due  to  a  partial 
fusion,  although  he  did  not  overlook  a  fact  which  renders 
this  explanation  uutenable,  namely,  that  the  species  presenting 


■i  rf  '♦'j'fw'^n 


A, 

213 


«  .       ,  •  r 

'^  .  XI.]  GRANITES  AND  GÈANITIC  VEIN-STOÏÏES? 

T^lf  '^f  !."''  "'"'^  ^^  ^"«^^î«  than  those  which   in- 
contact with  them,  préserve  their  cryrstaUine  W  hL, 
(Geplogy  of  the  First  District  of  N ^York    ««^57^  i 
Thèse  fects  are  weU  shown  in  the  apatite-vein   of  Eln.sl  ^  ani 
Bu^ess,  Onteno  where  the  crystals  o^  apatite  ra^  pii^Î 
sha^  or  welRefined  forma,  but  (whether  lining  drusy  cal t 
or  imbedded  m  the  calcite  or  other  minerais  of  tCvein  stone 
.are  most.frequently  rounded  o.  sub-cylindrical  Lses   S 
the  pyroxene  and  sphene,  which  often  a^^company  them   pi 
serve  tW  distinctness  of  form.     This  n,unding  of  the  aX 
of  cer^m-  crystals  appears  to  me  nothing  more  than  a  UIT 
-the  solven    actxon  of  the  heated  water^  solutions  fromwhil 
%m,ne^s  of  thèse  veins  were  deposited  ;  the  crysL  prÎ 
viou  ly  formed  bemg  partially  redissolyed  by  some  chaL  in 
«je  température  or  the  chemicàl  constitution  of  the  Son 
Heated  eo  utions  of  alkaline  silicate,  as  shown  by  Daub2 

Z    t    :TV  f  ^'P^''  ^  "^^^^  be  expected  from  S 
fact  observed  by  him  o^  the  production  of  crysLs  of  feldspar 

•  iTo^H  "  ^  /r '«-'  -  *he  midst  of  suchllutions  Thesê 
hqu  ds  would  however,  doubtless  attack  and  dissolve  apaMte 
which  la  m  hke  manner  decomposed  by  solutions  of  alE 
carbonate  and  thèse  latter  at  elevated  ^ratur^a  ^Iv 
^striW  quartz.  That  this  solvent  profess  has  b»rl 
peated  durmg^he  fi^  of  the  veîns  is  seen  by  a  spZxet 
m  my  possession,  which  shows  ciystals  of  calcit,  prewÔ^s  ! 
ofwhi  h         r'««^^-  *  ^  «'y^*^  of  quartz,  the  angÏÏ 

the  d  oiZ  ""î^^  L'"^'»^  ^^^  *^«  ^temationf  in 
the  deposited  minerai  mitters  in -many  vein-stoi^sas  well  as 

epnugs,  itis  évident  that  the  waters  cir^lating  in,the  fissu^s 
now  occupxed  by  veins  must  hâve  been  subject  to  peS 
variations  m  composition.  penooicai . 

an^tLnl«*^5^''^^.'^  ^*""^*  ^P*S^  ^29)  I  hâve  noticed 
Harv^ffin;    rounded  quaH.  ciystals  in  the  veins  at  the 

pr^^roMimnTTr  "  ''"'''  '^"'^-     ^^  *«"^-«^ 

L  T-    .  "°P'^  ""^^':^'^  q"^'  «re  there  found  imbedded 

^^pact  ei  ubeHeite,  theimmglëa^  teingmuch:  roundedfwS^ 


^  ■-.-■« 


i 


ji 


îSj^  ^w  1 


»<  ,sll«  V.  «a„*i<»„i> 


I  ê^ 


w 


'2Û 


jaieir  faces  are  coi|^ye,  aBâu1(|||B  lost-iheir  pj^ish,  retalning 
only  a  somewli^"  jpBasy'lusttô/"^  '^•#*^.  «%.iî^^feeJ\^]| 
ajf^rentiy  of  a  "Ilcàte^df  coppaÉMfolp,iiè|B"€^ce8<)|'^^^^^^ 

irtain  spécimens,  it  j?  evi(|^t  '%at  théfe  pr^R'p^^l^*^ 
dru8y,caVitie8,  were  paAially  4i«M'^  preVious 
fcf  the  metallic  siUphide.    '  ■  , 

Hhe  more  important  types  of  Laurentian  ,^ 
ly  now  be  noticed.     Thol#  made  up  of  quartz    t. 
muscovite,  a"nd  blac^  to}î|nialine,  often  with 

î'n^  aîte  flot"  tmfrçquent  in  the  Laurentii^  gneiss,  though  eo 

'fi#  as  yet  observed  less  abundant  than-^  the  gneisses  and 
nitca-schists  of  the  White  Mountain  serifl*  It  iç  trae,  as 
alrpady  pointed  out,  Ihat,  from  the  greater  atetftness  of  the  en- 
closing  rocks,  the  Veins  of  the  latter  séries  arj^ften  weathered 
into  relief  (§  20),  and  are  thus  rendered  more  conspicuous 
than  those  in,,  the  hauder  Laurentian  gneisseéi  Among  oîher 
examples  of^this  first  type  of  grariitic  veins  may.be  mentioned 
those  in  Yéo's  Island  among- the  Thousand  Isles  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  and,  tlje  well-known  vein-  in  Greenfield,  near  Sam- 
toga,  remarkabfe  for  affording  crystals  of  chrysaberyl.  A  fré- 
quent type  among  the  Laurentian -granitic  veins  is  characterized 
hj  great  cleavà'ble  masses  of  reddish  or  reddish-brown  orthoclase, 
with  quartz  and  but  little  mica.  With  thèse  are  sometinies 
associated  equally  large  nuisses  of  white  or  pale-colored  albite  ; 
thèse  veiBs  are  sometimes  of  great  size,  one  hundred  feet  or 
more  in  breadth.  The  perthite  of  Thondpson,  well  known  as  a 
cleavable  feldspar  made  up  of  alternate  thin  plateà  of  reddish 


brown  orthoclase  and  white  albite,  forins  '\ 
granitic  vein  ;  while  thô  peristerite  of  th 
opalescent  or  chatoyant  whit^  albite,  ■«^ith 
flectioQii^hich  occuïs  with  quartz  i 
regio^Jl^nne   of  the  veins.  of  id 
cleav^ipiPiasses  of  <dark  green  ho 
magnetite.    A  r^arkable  vein  abo  ^ 
Buckingham,  Québec,  is  composed  e: 
orthoclase  and  cleavable  magnetite,  the 


iquartz  a  large 

^author  is  aA 

nd  green  re- 

iïi  the  same 

include'  l^e 

scasionally  with 

pet  in  width,  in 

reddish-white 

masses  gome- 


V 


•..^H 


/ 


\     M.)  ^  GRANITES  AND  GRAl^ITIC  VEIN-STÔNEa  215 

'        fZplr  ""  '^'  ^"^"^  '°  ^'^''^''  «'^''^^^  '^^^  the 

•      •     ^vL^P    ^^'  ''^'"'  ^^^'"^  ^'"'^  ''««'^^  ^«  g^«i««>  but-on  thê 
nver  Eouge  one  cons.sting  of  largp  niasses  of  quartz  and  albite 

^y  Sir  WxUiam  Logan  in  BlythefteW,  OntAio,  traver.es  alter- 
nate  strata  of  limestone  and  gneiss,  and  bas  a  breadth  of  not 
ess   than   150  feet.     It  consists  in  great  part'W  a  coai«.ly 
cleavable  pale  green  pyroxene   (sahlite),  with  a  dark  gi^ej 
,      hornblende,  phlogopite,  and  calqite.     Portions  of  the  Vein-stone 
however,  consist  of  an  admixture  of  orthoclase,  quartz,  and 
blacLtourmalin^^  ehowlng  tbe  tmnsition  frôu^^the  c^careous  to 
he  feldspathic  type  of  veins.     In  Ross,  Ontario,  a  vein  holds 
large  isolated  crystals  of  white  orthoclase  imbedded  wi*h  black 
jnel,  apatite,  and  fluorite  in  ft^e  of  lamellar  pink  caAonate  \ 
of  hnie.     One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  thèse  comporte  veins 
18  m  Grenville,  Québec,  rfnd  was  formerly  worked  for  graphite." 
It  cuts,  a  crystaUine  limestone.  itself  holding  graphite  and 
.       phlogopite.  and  has  afiforded  not  less  than  fçurteen  distinct 
nuneral  species  namely,  calcite,apatite,  serpentine,  wollastonite. 

■  quartz,  4>h  A  and  graphite.   An  adjacent  vein  abounds  L  phlo^ 
gopite  with  pyroxene  and  zireon.     A  not  less  i^markabla  vein 

(2)  XIII.  16),  in  which  calcite,  fluorite,  chondrodite,  phWo- 
P  te,  marmite,  8pinel,corundum,  zireon,  sphene,  rutile,  menace 
T:  ^^r  '  '"^  ^^«^  "^"'•-  Some  of  thèse  contain  bary- 
2^&|if°''^^^^^^^  observed  natrolite,  both  seemingly 
qjP^rtFès  anJof|^  origin  than  the  other  minerais. 
m  remarkable  rfteïfei-ousVinerals,  franklinite,  zincite,  dys- 

J^w  Jersey,  appear  from  the  (^criptions  ot,H.a.  Rogersto    ' 
belong  to,cal.,^U8  Vein-stones.     GianMc  veins  a,^  found     ^ 
traveismgthemagnetic  iron  or^beds  of  ihe  Laurentiaiî  séries. 
■       LIT  ^        ?  "^1^°  ^°"*^'  Ne#>York,  which  include^ 
^^r^ff«^of^he  màgnet^which  forms  its  walb,  and' 


■.  v-.^ 


V 


y. 


-r.. 


/ 


216 


GRANITES  AND  GRANITIC  VEIN-8T0NES. 


[XI. 


!  crystalfl  "havihg  rounded  angles,  dctahedrona  0/  magnite,  al- 
-'  lanite,  and  a  soft  greanish  minerai  resembling  loganite. 

§  46.  As  regards  the   order  of  déposition  of  miderals  in 
thèse  veins,  we  find  aiJatite  enclosed  alike  in  calcite,  in  quartz, 
in  phlogopite,  in  spinej,  in  graphite,  and  in  pyrite.     On  the 
other  hand,  apatite  sonîetimes  includes  rounded   crystals   of 
calcilie  or  of  quartz  ;  and  graphite,  which  itself  encloses  apatite, 
is  found  iucluded  alike  in  quartz,  in  çrthoclase,  in  pyroxene 
and  in  calcite,  in  such  a  manuer  as  tp  lead  us  to  conclude  that 
its  crystallizàtîon  was  contemporaneous  with  that  of  ail  thèse 
minerais  ;  while  from^the  other  facts'mentioned  it  would  appear 
that  the  order  of  déposition  was  subject  to  variation  and  to 
altecnatioris.     In  a  vein  in  Grenville  large  prisms  of  a  white 
aluminous  pyroxene  (leucaugite)  penetrate  great  crystals  of 
phlogopite,  while  at  the  same  time  small  crystals  of  a  similar 
mica  are  completely  imbedded  in  the  crystallized   pyroxene. 
Many  facts  relating  to  the  association  of  varions  species  in 
thèse  vein-stones  will  be  found  in  my  essay,  but  the  subject  is 
"  one  which-still  demands  carefûl  study.     The  baryded  structure 
of  thèse  veins  is  well  shown  in'some  of  those  1$kùi.  contain 
graphite.     This  minerai,  though  sometimes  irregularly  dissemi- 
natèd  through  tlM^•  vein-stone,  frequently  occurs  in  sheets  or 
lay'ersflltemating  with  orthoclase,  quartz,  or  pyroxene,  parallel 
to  the  waUs  of  thej^vein  and  exhibiting  a  peculiar  structure  due 
to  the   formation   of  successive  layerê  of  crystalline  lamelhè 
more  or  less  uepjly  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  déposition. 
\   §  47.  The   veins  hitïierto  noticed,  whether  feldspathic   or 
calcareous,  are  generally  vertical,  or  nearly  so,  aijd  in  most 
«aaes  traverse  the  stratification.     Of  raany  of  them  which  hâve 
been  explored  to  some  extent  for  apatite,  mica,  and^graphite,  it 
is  noticed  that  they  are  subject  to  great  changes  in  dimension 
as  well  as  in  minerai  contents.     They  of^p  appear  to  occupy 
short  irregular  fissures,  and  in  some  case»  are  to  be  d^cribed 
as  more  or  less  completely  fiUed  geode-like  cavities  rather  than 
veins. 

§  48.  Tn  the  reprint  of  my  essay,  already  mentioned,  several 
veins  are  noticed  in  the  coanty  of  Hastings,  Ontario,  in  rocks 


\, 


'   "(K-    ^  1 


u^ 


} 


,     XI-I  GRANITES  AND  GRÀXITIC  VEÎX^STONES.  217 

inaline,  quarts,  and  Lnhite  17    ^       bisa^uthine  with  tour- 

to  a  séries  uncoTi^rbCe^^^^^^^^^^^  7^  ^^^-^^^^ 

sembling  the  rocks  of  the  WhlteZ    .        "'*"*'"'''  ""'^   ^- 
.       «otfced  that  this  vein  is  1  rho,        T     '"^  '"'''''     ^'  ^'"^  ^e^ 
I^urentian,  whichC  ^t  ^S^^^^  ^^  ^'^^^  ^^  ''^' 
careôus  vein-stones  ]ike   thnJ  i      ,     !         «^«^«age.     Cal- 
known  in  the  WhteMonr-       1^  ^^"^^'^  '^^«^  "«*  "«- 

Woc,nse.and  sphene^nd T'     V',"^'''*"'^^^  Py--^«««> 

apatite,  and  «mphiMMS^  Il      ,       *''  "^''^  hornblende 

vein-stones  o5 /ewlri^ l^S^T'^''^^  ^'^^  ^"-«- 

§  49.  The  varions  n,inex^«  of  thèse  ca Wons  vein-stones  an, 

Com"D7oIus"o;'«,e'S^^^^^  f-  October,  1873.  on  The 

«nd  .nica..sch«t8  wl.ich  I  r^f^rthe  w£  M  "'""f '"""'^  ''^'  '"  g"^i«««-' 
a'-e  sometimes  tmnsverse  io  th^  7h.]E^^  Thèse  vdris 

^<led.    Amwcample  of  the  lattl  Jf^  ^L  *"^  ■**  °*''«'-  "'"•'S  inter- 

n-as^  paràlEto  the  walJs/%he  ehieT pa,Ï^'f  tï  *"-"T"'«"t  of  th,  la.^e 
Pyrrhotine,  and  chakopyrite  ^^1^1^  ,  "  71"  '"  '^"^  *"''  Pyrite. 
".oljWenite.  Thèse  ".Lsi^ï^rT  Jcir«  ,X  "*'  '''*"'^'  ""«P'^'^el.  and 
with  prisms  of  Eoisite,  hornblendT  »„H  <  ^'  ^"'''"'  """^  »'•«  P«netrated 
'«"^'••J^hornbleU'™^ 

^"""•UiiPP  thecleavageplanrôf  l,roL  «"'Ph"ret8,  which  are  also 

of  thrœTreof  vit.^8qu:5  iiXT.T^r'»'"    Otherportionï 
nete.-.wMfe  Ur^B  masses  of  S   ,'*'"*8  "•«*«"'«  «ulphi.les  and  rarely  wr 

ble  calcite  enclosing  long  prisml   'f^' ^''"^'^  ""^  «'  ^hite  cleava 

S 


ii 


'^S 


•*?-■■ 


•■^t 


.V;; 


216 


GBANITE8  AND  GBANITIO  VEIN-STONÉS. 


'il 


[XL 


# 


^ 


geneij^y  described^^pPSrafflfl!^  i»  ^lystalline    limestones, 
though  C.  U.  ahepaifd,  H.  D.  Kogers,  and  W.  P.  Blake  havo 
each  rècognized  the  fact  tl^t  thèse  minerai  species,  with  their 
calcareouB  gangue,  belong  ,to  true  veins.     Emmonq,  however, 
fiiiled  to  distinguish  between  thèse  Téin-Aiones  and  the  ôtratified . 
limestones  of  the  séries,  which,  as  already  stated,  often  contaiu 
disseminated  many  of  the  sâme  species,  though  in  a  less  per^ 
fectly  crystallized  condition  than  in  the  veinnstones.     Since  the 
latter  are  clearly  seen  to  traverse  thejgneiss,  like  dikea,  Emmons 
«^as  led  to  look  upon  them  as  eruptiye  ;  and,  generalizing  fiwm 
\,  thia,  he  declared  that  aU|,.the  crystalline  limestones  of  northem  » 
ï  New  York  were  nonrstratified  rocks  of  eruptive  origùg|.  (Geology 
of  the  First  District  of  New  York,  1842,  pages  3?W9.)    This 
^  ^iew  of  Emmons. was,  to  a  certain  extent,  tidopted  by  Mather, 
jrho,  wiùle  maintaining  the  stratified  character  of  the  crysttdlîne 
lim#»nes  of  southem  lîei*  York,  admitted  thé  existence  of 
eruptive  limestones.    Von  Leonhard  had  already,  in  1833, 
asâërted  that  limei^$i|ae8  hâve  sometimes  corne  irom  tlu^terior 
of  the  ear^  iif^  ^h^à  state,  lik^  pther  igneous  rocks,  and  a 
similjff  view*  was  at'  that  ti^e  maintàined  by  maïiy  other 
geolq||||^    imoD%  otlMn  we  find  lîozet  assertins/the  eruptive 
origin  Dr  the  crystalline  limeâtonëà  which  tg^oMociated  with 
gneîal  i^^j^  mountains ,of  the  Vosges.'    (BiîlL  Soc.  GeoL  de 
France,(|PS|216-235.)|'^|n  suppoïSj^f  thiit  view  Could  be 
urged  *thë^^e-like  fqim^iol  the^^^careous  vôjp-stoMs,,  uriiich 
other  observersj  like  Emi^p,-,confouiJdod  with^^ihe  bedded 
limestones.    Xhe  na^pe  inlrôri^  of  this  miscoAception  were, 
I  beiieve,  firsi  popBoul  by  nfein  a  communication  to  the 
,   American  "Associatl||pPior  pie  Advaucement  of  Science  in  Au- 
gust,  lM€  (Canaâ^  NaturaUst  (2),  IIi;   123),  and  subse- 
quently  more'at  length  in  the  essay  so  often  referred  to.    IfReport 
GeoL  jSurvey  of  Canada,  1863-66,  p,  182.)    It  was  there 
shown  that  many  of  thèse  calcareous  vein-etones  are  nearly  free 
ftom  foil«ign  minerais,  and  so  dosely  resemble  in  litljological 
characters  tbe  stratified  limestones,  that  the  différent  geognosti- 
'"  cal  relations,  of  the  two  alone  enable  us,  in  some  exaraples,  to 
-^âiatingttJA-b^weeartheiit.    In  thia  coanectioa  I  oalled  att^F^ 


\ 


•■.^j^.ï. 


^ 


[XL 


Ï^J  GRANITES  AND  GRANITIC  VEIN-STONEa  219 

limestones  are  in  Cto  s^tifi^^r    "^"^^"«"^  concretionary ' 


^ 


« 


\ 


caci^ 


f^.. 

'^;- 


-E    Jê^ 


ter5S»it.'i«;-fr 


...:a? 


'■>■  -■ 


'■  r»;,  f 


/  lirr  '^ 


xn 

THE   ORIGIN  OF  METALLIFEROUS 
DEPOSITS. 

ThU  paper,  unllke  th«  othcn  ta  thta  collection  (wlth  the  exception  of  IV.),  wu  a 
lecture  to  a  gênerai  audience,  glven  before  the  American  Institute  of  New  York,  la 
May,  1872,  and  reported  for  thelr  Pïoceedlngs.  It  is  reprinted  hère  beoauie  it  lUte», 
though  in  a  familiar  manner.  certain  viewg  which  the  author  belleves  to  be  Important! 
The  following  extract  fh)mareview  of  American  Qeology  in  the  American  Journal 
of  Science  for  May,  1801  (a  part  of  which  ia  puWiahed  as  Esaay  V.  of  thla  volume)^  la 
preflxed  as  a  concise  statement  of  some  of  the  potats  ta  the  lecture. 

"Thé  metals  ....  seem  to  hâve  been  oriçiiiaUy  brought 
to  the  surface  in  watery  solutions,  from  which  we  conçoive 
them  to  hâve  been  separated  by  the  reducing  agency  of  organic 
mattere  in  the  form  of  sulphurets  or  in  the  n«l%e  state,  and 
mingled  with  the  contemporaneous  sédiments,  where  they  occur 
in  beds,  in  disseminated  grains  fofming  fahlbands,  or  are  the 
cementing  material  of  conglomérâtes^  During  the  suljeequent 
metamorphism  of  the  strata  thèse  meldlic  matters,  being  taken 
into  solution  by  alkaline  carbonates  or  sulphurets,  hâve  been 
redeposited  in  fissures  m  the  metalliferous  strata,  fonuing  veins, 
or,  ascending  to  higher  beds,  hâve  given  rise  to  metalliferous 
veins  in  strata  not  themselves  metalliferous.  Such  we  conçoive 
to  be,  in  a  few  words,  the  theory  of  metalUe  deposits  ;  they 
belong  to  a  period  when  the  primai  sédiments  were  yet  impreg- 
nated  with  metallic  compounds  which  were  soluble  in  the  per- 
meating  waters.  The  metals  of  the  sedimentary  rocks  are  now, 
however,  for  the  greater  part  in  the  form  of  insoluble  sulphurets, 
80  that  we  hâve  only  traces  of  them  in  a  few  minerai  springs, 
which  serve  to  show  the  agenciea  once  at  work  in  the  sédi- 
ments and  waters  of  the  earth's  crust.  The  présent  occurrence 
of  thèse  metals  in  waters  which  are  alkaline  from  the  présence 


IIL] 


OBIOm  Ot  MÉÏALUPÉRoirg  DEPOSm. 


221 


(i«.,  lK«e  88.)     ""'^  *f"'ei  m^  hmm.ot  «.-water." 

to  be.uncalled  fôr     Th«  «ni!.?        «»etallie  ores,  wé  conçoive 
carbonate,,  :â^e«,^:^^2^«^ 
•    taJcen  in  connection  iritk  fi.       >      '  ^^'^'^  températures, 

-ith  De  seC:s^:^^,^^;v^^^ 

.    the  ciystaUization  nf  ^^^"'^^  «  ^«^«tïful  exp«rim«nts  on 

atmosphex..    n^Z^,^^,^^^^^'^^^ 
quantities,  and  in  verv  diZ!^*  !!  ***'***''*«d  "^  ^^y  nneqiml 

quencyo/thj:i2.S1n^lS^ 

thosewhichconstituteaira^dwat?^^^^  T""* 

the  solid  inatters  of  the  earth's  S  «1   ^^/  ^"'^^'^^  ^ 

exceedingly  abondant,  m^ng  uTn^ne  te"^^^^  ^"  "'^^'  ^" 
hundredth^,  of  the  rocks  so  ffr  «v^  ''  ^^  "«^  »i°«ty-five 
of  AThidi  siica.  aluSS  Iji^  ^  ^''^'^  *^  ^     ^he  éléments 

MûaU  quantities      M^^  T^^*     ^  ^"^"^  ""*  comparatively 

coiZk  mStltZ  rr^  °^  °«*^'«-     Such  are  th^ 

occuri^natuJ^ifl^L'lf^T  "^'^  ^  '^"«'*«'  ^^^«ï* 
haTe  been  collée^  rvlll'^^  ^''^  "^"*^'  ^"*  ^l^i^h 
for  the  wal  i^ï  "T"'  ^ne^es,  and  thus  made  avaUable 

^n,  copper,  Ir  J*  i;  2 

there  are  two  ot^r  elemff        f  ,   ^"'P^  *^  ^^^^  >  ï>»t 

^-^HBPrswttrand  wdl,  a»m^,  enabfe  us  to  compi^end 


/•- 


"  ,/v 


^ 


222 


QBIGm  OF  METALLIFEKOUS  DEPOSITS. 


l^.' 


,.  >' 


■„-  (,1"  " 

Cl 


more  clearly  some  points  in  that  of  the  metals  themselvee.     I 

-  spepk  M  jjhosphorus  and  iodine.  ; 

"     You  ail  know  the  esaential  part  whftîh  the  former  of  thèse,. 

combifled  as  phosphate  of  lime,  plays  in  the  animal  economy, 

,  ili  thefonnation  of  bonesj  and  how  plants  require  for  their 

„...;!  '  proper  growth  and  developipent  a  certain  amount  of  pho8-. 

phorus.     Ordinary  soUs  contain  only  a  few  #iousandths  of  this 
;  -  u  ■  "  '       eïement,  yet  there  are  agencips  at  wprk  m  natUrakdIfeich  gath'er 
thia  ditfused  pl}<wphoru8  tog(Jtlf4r  in  beds  of  minerai  phosphatel. 
,,«  and  in  veins  of  crystalline  apatite,  which  are  noMC  sought  to 

enrich  impoverished  spilf,    Iodine,  an  .élément  of  great  value 
:  in  niedicine  and  in  the  art  of  photography,  is  widely  distributéd, 
but  still  rarer  than  jphosphorus  ;  yet  it  abounds  in  certain  min- 
_     ;      eral  vateia,  and  is;  morèover.aibumulated  in  maiffie  plants. 
Thèse  extract  it  from  the  waters  of  t^e  sea,  where  iodine  éxists 
,  in  such  minute  quai^iti^^  as  ahoogt  té^elud^tour  chen^bal 
;  testa.     (Sée  tte  Appendix,  page  237.)  '  '• 

■*  There  are  probably  no  perfecfc  Hepaiations  in  nature.    We 

cannot,  without  great  précautions,  get  any  ctéinical"  élément, 
j^^n  a  state  of  absolute  plirity,  and  vf^e  haveSeason  to  bàieve 
,    '    yî     *^teventhei'arestelemé9lsareWeryVhetêdiigased  i»  infini- 
-  .  jw^esimal  quantities.     Tfie  spectroeoo||,  which  we  hâve  lately 
,;^  ■  leamed  to  apply  to  the  investigation  alika  of  the  «heraiatry  of 
:  '       ''^  '.  j   our  own  earth  and  of  other  Worlds  once  supposed  to  be  b^ond 
,^    J;he  chemist's  ken,  not  only  demonetratf*  the  very  wide  diffu-  ^ 
sion  of  varions  chemical  éléments  hère  on  the  éarth,  but  ^ows 
■    ^  ns  that  very  many  of  them  exist  m  the  su^jt     IÇf  we  accept,  as 

:     ...;  most  ot  lîs  ai»  now  inclined  to  do,  the  nebular  h3T)è<he8i8,  and  '' 

admit  that  ou*  earth  wa*  once^  like  the,  s^  of  to-d«y,  an  in-' 
^        tensely  heated  vaporous  masé  ;  that  it  is,  in  fact,  à  coolëd  and  ^ 
'    .     'èondensed  portion  of  that  once  great  nebula  of  which  the  sun    ' 
4  is  also  à  part,  —  je  might  exj^ct  to  find  ail  the  elihie>ts  now 

•  »  discovpred  in  the  sun  distribiited  throughodj,  this  Consolidated 
glo.be.     We  may  speculate  about  the  condettsâ^çm  of  ^me  of 
y  , .    thèse  befdre  others,  tfhd  their  conséquent  aocjA^tion  in  t^e 

inner  parts  of  the  eart^;  but  the  fact  that  Î^OM^e  aU  the  élé- 
ments of^  the  solarenvelopèXtogetherwitîJ'iKS^tQdWf  in' thé 


1)1', 


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(^ 


XII-l  ORIGIN  OF  METALLIFEROUS  DEPOSITS.  -  223 

exterior  portions^  our  planet,  «ho,v»  that  there  was  at'least 
but  a  very  partial  q)»|icentration  and  séparation  nHl,         , 

akeu  dp   by  water,  and  again  deposit;!  *om  it*    T^^ 

icnow  that  water,  aided  in  .som^  casj^by  heat  Dressu«,  „n^ 
tho  p:.«enee  of  certain  widely  distrifj  sutlS  Ith  a^ 
carbomc  a.id  and  alkaline  carbonate^  and  sulpS  ^S^l  di? 
solve  thé  n^ost  insoluble  bodiea  ;  so  that  it  Zy  after^  b  ' 
look^  upon  aa  the  lon^sougbt-for  alkahest  oT^tlten! 

-Sait..  «  afreîdy  d^^ÏÏ^"  XJ^Vî^^^tt  £'"    "''r''  "*"*™' 
c6nneotion  mav  aUn  h»  «Joii^^u  ''  ^T'*  "»i'^  ««««e  order.    In  this 

«tan.*,  fêr^e    il.ïir^"?  î"  ^*  ''°'"'"^'*y  ''î^'^  of  silicic,  titanic' 
•^<^^^^^^o^^^''':k^^,^Z^::  oxidea  when  in'w*t  |î«h'amla^ 

-ibown  thW  for  theZÎr  „L  W  th^'  •""'  "i  "1"  ^'"*'^  ""«  «'"y  '^ 


'>« 


.  *    . 


f 


•oI«il4«|M  wstefTt 


in^ 


^  •<#., 


'   •'*  •■• 


••,    7'» 


224 


ORIGIN  OF   METALLIFEROFS  DEPOSITS. 


[XII. 


Let  U8  nôw  compare  the  waters  of  rivera,  seas,  and  subter- 
ranean  spring^  thus  impregnated  with  various  chemical   élé- 
ments, with  thè  Bîood  which  circulâtes  through  our  own  bodies. 
The  analysis  of  the  blood  shows  it  to  contain  albuminoids 
which  go  to  form, muscle;  fat  for  the  adipose  tissues,  phosphate 
of  lime  for  the  bones,"  fluorides  for  the  enamel  of  the  teeth, 
sulphur,  which  entera  largely  into  the  composition  of  the  hair 
and  nails,  soda  which  accumulâtes  in  the  bile,  and  potash, 
which  abounds  in  the  flesh-fluid.     Ail  of  thèse  are  dissolved  in 
the  blood,  and  the  great  problem  for  the  chemical  physiologist 
18  to  détermine  how  the  living  organism  gathera  them  from 
this  complex  fluid,  depositing  them  hère  and  there,  and  giving 
to   each  part   its  proper  material.     This  sélection  is  generally 
ascribed  to~  a  certain  vital  force,  peculiar  to  the  living  body. 
I  shall  not  hère  discuss  the  vexed  question  of  the  nature  of 
the  force  which  détermines  the  assimilation  from  t^e   blood 
'  of  thèse  various  matters  for  the  needs  of  the  animal  organism, 
farther  than  to  say  that  '  modem  investigations  tend  ta  show 
that  it  is  only  a  subtler  kind  of  chemistry,  and  tl^at  the  study 
of  the  nature  and  rdiation  of  coUoids  and  crystalloids,  and  of 
the  phenomena  of  chemical  diffusion,  promises  to  subordinate 
ail  thèse  obscure  physiological  processes  to  chemical  and  physi- 
cal  laws. 

Let  us  now  see  how  far  the  comparison  which  we  hâve  made 
between  the  earth  and  an  animal  organism  will  help  us  to 
underetand   the  problem  df  the  distribution   of  minerais  in 
nature ,  how  far  water,  the  universal  solvent,  acting  in  accord- 
ance  with  known  chemical  and  physical  laws,  will  cause  the  ' 
séparation  of  the  mixed  eïements  of  the  ear^h's  cnxst,  and  their   . 
accumulation  in  veins  and  beds  in  the  rocks.     The  subject  is 
one  of  great  importance  to  the  geologist,  who  bas  to  conéider  the 
genesis  of  the  vanous  rocks  and  ore-deposits,  and  the  relations, 
which  we  are  only  beginning  to*  underetand,  between  certain 
metals  and  particulàr  rocks,  and  between  certain  classes  of  ores 
and  peculiar  mineralogical  and  geological  conditions.     It  is  &t 
th|  same  time  a  vast  one,  and  I  can  now  only  give  yoti  a  few 
illtstrations  of  the  chemistry  of  the  earth's  cruat,  and  of  the 


s:3- 


1^& 


K' 


XII.] 


OEIGIN  OF  METAtLIFEEOUS  DEPOSITa 


225 


haa  already  spoken  ofTS^t'  T'"  ^^^  ''  ^^""^"*' 
fin  éléments  in  the  earth  W  Ct^^\^  -«^  to  cer- 
I  am  awai^,  éarried  it  out  to  1'     .!    ^'  ^  "«'''  ««  ^  as 

.     *«^.r-yatten,pùoelpC^^^^  ' 

presided  over  the  d^tribution  nî  ^?î       *^'  ^^^  ^^><^^  We 

^       The  chemi«t  in  Ws  la wf  'T'f^  ^^  ^^^^  ««^h. 

of  te.pe.tu.,  and^on  rSof;  ^-^*«««  «^  changes 
Pi^^pitants,  to  sepkxBte,  mthehZif  '^'"°''  ^"^^««^  ^d 
^other  ;  but  to  thèse  aglf^  ^S'  ^^^^  ««^  «len^ent  fi«^ 

■     added  other«  wWch  Ve  W  w    ^  ''"'^^^  "^  °*t^'^.  are 
.      «'^d-Wchareexertedoid^'^^^^^f-^^^-ded  in  ^t'in^^ 

„  repeatit;  I  do  not  wish  to  «^^71  "^"^^^  ^^^  P^-"ts.     I 

dzffe^nt  in  kind  fron.  thor:Ch  ,f  r  "f  ^^^ 
tones,  but  .ther  that  thèse  T^^^Vr^'"^  ^°  «"^  ^abom- 
«^01.  délicate  chemical  and  ^hyS^S    "  '  ^'  ^'  '^^ 
|Bvented.     Plante  hâve  the  pow^o^ïTr  '^"^  "«  «^^^  ^e* 
-  which  they  live  the  ^e^  nTntt^!^"*'^«-d- 
«    The  grovmg  oak  and  thfegrass  aI,U     ^     '  *^^  '"PP^rt. 
^ater  the  carbon,  hydCHt^^.       ^^^^^  ^^  *^«  «^^^^d 
«Ptheiz^issues,  andSiS?;  rt''^^^^°  ^^''^^  ^uild 
0^  PWhorus,  which,  tho^h  i,^^«^^-*î^-oilaportion 
table  growtfi.     The  a^orn  ZiT\'     *''°*^^  ^  ^^e  ycge- 
come  the  food  of  anTZ     nd  th       T  *'^  ^  ^^^«^ 
;nto  their  bones,  which  ^ n^W^^^'^j''?^^^^^  P^  ' 
Wce  manne,  the  phosphates  Zm  ^T  ^"^^^"^  "^  ^^'"«-     ^^^     '     ' 
their  way  to  the  sé^and  th^L^""'  "^^  '""^  d*««y  fi»d 
•tation  Wome  at  iTt^  blr^t  ^  f"'  «^«"«^  «^  marine  v^e-      * 
>ûturn,theprevof  .r  •  ^^^^^^''^'''f  fishes.    Thèse  ^     - 

*-pioal^slanrbe1sTXr«^"^'^"^^^^         ^   ■ 

other^^posits  of  niineml^pÏ^     r^^-'*^  ^"^  '^ ^^^  ^ 

the  phosphates  hâve  béèn  fW^  ^^'     ^^^  "^^^^^«r  ineans       , 
therecehtstudiesof^£rr"^"^^>'^^«PI^I^       ' 


10* 


*•>«* 


js^^Të^G^^ 


:».>«(«,■ 


''*. 


>:«  ■  V 


*  s 


\  2 


'  ..^ 


226 


OEIGIN   OF  METALLIFEROUS  DEPOSIXa 


[Xlt 


j  g^en-sand  in  England  resuit  from  a  petrifaction  of  spongès  )aj 
dissblveë-pbosphatés,  and  similar  observations  ïiave  been  made 
by  Edwards  with  r^ard  to  the  guano  of  the  Cbincha  Islands.] 

But  àgain,  thèse  plants  or  thèse  animais  may  perish  in  the  ' 
sea  and  ,be  buried^in  its  ooz».     T>e  phosphates  which  they 
hâve  gathered  are  nbt  lost,  but  become  fixed  in  an  insoluble 
form  in  the  ckyey  raatter  ;  and  _when,  in  the  revolutioi^  of 
âges,  thèse  sea-muds,' hardened  to  ijock,,  become  dry  land,  and  % 
crumble  again  to  soil,  the  phosphates  are  thore  found  ready  for  " 
the  wants  of  végétation.  *i  . 

Most  of  what  I  hâve  said  of  phosphates  applies  equally  to 
the  salts  of  potash,  which  are  not  less  necessary  to  the  growin<T  - 
plant.  From  the  opération  of  these-hiws  it  results  that  neither 
of  thèse  éléments  is  fourid  in  large  quantîties  in  the  océan. 
This  great  réceptacle  of  the  drainage  from  the  land  contains 
stiU  smaller  quantitîes  of  iodine  ;  in,  fac't,  the  tracies  of  this 
eleriient. présent  in  sea-wâter  can  scarcely  be  detected  by  our 
most  délicate  tests.*  i;,Yet  marine  plants  hâve  the  power  of  " 
separating  this  iodine,  and  accumulating  it  in  their  tissues,  so 
that  thiç  ashes  of  théSe  plapts  are  not  only  rich  in  phosphates 
and  ia  petaœh-sàiîfe,  but  contain  |o  içuch  iodine  that  our  sup-  ' 
plies  of  this  î«8ci*i%  élément  are  almost  wholly  derived  from 
this  source,  aîoâ.  that  the  gathering  and  bùming  of  seâ-weed  for 
.  the  extrqictioiv  ôt  iodine  is  in  eome  régions  an  important  indus- 
try.  "When.this  marine  végétation  decays,  the  iodine  which  it 
contains  appears,  like  the  potash  and  phosphates,  to  pass  into 
combinaâoù  with  mètals,.earth8,  or  èapthy  phosphates,  whioh 
'  retain  it  in  ah  insoluble  state,  and  in  certain  cases  yield  it  to 
percolating  saline  solutions,  vhich  thus  give  rise  to  springs 
rich  in  iodine.  *  (^n<e,  page  143.)      /         ,  ''"^       . 

In  ail  of  thèse  processes  the  action  of  organic  fife  is  direct  '' 
and  a«similative,  but  there  are  otlieiB  in  which  its  agency, 
although  indirect,  is  not  less  important;    L<an  hardly  coiv-v^ 
ceive  of  an  accumiriation|Qf  iron,  copper,  Jeadj^^lver,  -(Sl*  g^,  ^ 
in   the  production  of  w£i»;h  animal  or  vegetable  life  bas  not 
eith^r  directly  or  jidnectly  been  necessary^  a|t!^  I  shall  be-     " 
N      '     ,  *  9Hli6  Appeiid^  to  this  paper.    ^  ^ 


î^-.-'INm*  "   ■ 


i»-  ;,;■ 


--^ 


,  » 


.  --rt  -•■* 


i'  ■'^'  •':•.'  ,Âf  ''A^_ 


V 


227 


«1-3  -ORIGIN  OF  METALLIFEROUS  DÉPOSITS 

élément  in  our  blood.     ClLo  JJ^jZ'  ''  *  necessarj. 

other  matters-  that  we  could  1!         ?  '  ^"*  '"^  ^^^«^  ^^ 

aiso  fîndlt  g^thered  Ige  heÏÏ.  ^Til'.        ^^^P^"  *^»^*  ^« 

%t  the  iron,  ^  diffusfd  i^  t^e  Jl!     ^  •  ^^'  ^'^^^  ^««^ 

-tionwith:;,yger^^ 

Pounds:  the  first,  or  protoxid^  .iï^-^"^^-^- '''*^«»ffl'- 

and  t&e  aecond.  or  n.LS^-u^"*  '*'  °*^  ^^«ble  acids  • 

««d  indiffèrent  JS.^2T^'^*'^^  «'^«^  '-^  «entrai 

g^-st  in  tint,  while  t^pe^iafw  'TT  ''  ^^"^^  <^ 
-the  substance  knôwk-as  ix42'  «J«dd.sh,b«,wn,and  &• 

?f  «Y^n,  and  is  converted  înto^^^"^  t"^^''  proportion 
^hich  are  whitewhen  buW'r  '•-^°l*^^'^»'««%« 
^«^    Mapy  of;'  thes^^!:'  "^'^  T  »f  l^i^ed  for  thi 

«t-gnant^at»  which  cXte  '  t'  T  fe  ^''^ÏÏ^^J^at  the  .\ 
"^^^  Xffl,  but  «  r«aHy  It^^îT^^^  ^°"^»  '«°°'«^M 

V^..howey«r,  thi.  gliW»^  ^^.^  ^^'    >^«P  «xpoee^i  to'the   : 
Ace  of  t^.  ,,„tnr?Tua  n^^yu^T^  Zl  ^^"^  "^  ^^"^^  '      ' 


X 


•^'.\( 


,  \*.- 


^  -A 


'  -.  : 


%  ^  / - 


■?" 


r 


% 


\Â       . 


228 


&s. 


m 


ORIQIN  OF  METAUIiPEROUS  DEPOSÏTS. 


h^ 


^ 


ochre,  or,  under  aoDaewhat  différent  conditions,  beèomes  aggre- 
gated  as  a  massive  iron-ore.  A  proceas  identical  in  kind  witk 
this  haa  been  at  work  at  thè  earth^  surface  Bver  since  there 
were  decaying  organic  matters,  dissolving  the  iron  fr»m  the 
pdifous  rocks,  clays,  and  sands,  and  gathering  Jt  together  in  ' 
beds  of  iron-ore  or  iron-ochre.  Jt  is  not  necesisijâry  that  thèse 
locks  and  soils  should  coutain  the  iron  in  the  state  of  pro- 
toxide,  since  thèse  organic  producte  (which  are  themseîves 
dissolved  in  the  "water)  are  arble  teo  ismove  a  portion  of  the 
oxygen  frotn  the  insoluble  peroxide,  and  convert  it  into  the 
aoluble  protoxide  of  iron,  being  themseîves  in  part  oxidiised 
and  converted  into  carbonic  acid  itt  the  process. 

We  fiud  in  rock-fonnations  of  very  différent  âges  beds  of 
sédiments  which  hâve  been  deprived  of  iron  by  organic  agen- 
cies,  and  near  them  vnU.  geuerally  bê  found  the  accumulated 
iron.  Go  into  any  coal  région,  and  you  willsee  évidences  that 
this  process  was  at  work  when  the  coal-beds  were  forming. 
The  eoil  in  wliich  the  coal-plants  grew  bas  been  deprived  of  its 
iron,  and  when  bumed  tums  white,  as  do  most  of  the  slaty 
beds  from  the  coal-rodcs.  It  is  this  ancient  soil  which  coh- 
stitutee  the  so-called  fire-clays,  prized  for  making  bricks  which, 
trom  the  absence  of  both  iion  and  alkaljes,  are  very  infusible. 
Interstratified  with  thèse  we  offcen  find,  in  the  form  of  iron- 
stone,  the  separated  métal  ;  atid  thas  firom  the  same  séries  of 
rocks  may  be  obtained  the  fuel,  the  ore,  and  the  fire-clay. 

From  what  I  hâve  said  it  will.  be  anders^bod  that  great 
dèposits  of  iroB-ore  generolly  occur  in  the  shape.of  beds  ;  al- 
thçugh  waters  hblding  the  compoondA'of  iron  in  solution  hâve, 
in  some  cases,  deposited  them  in  fissures  or  openings  in  the 
rocks,  thu8  forming  true  veins  of  ore,  of  wiiich  we  shall  speak 
fuf^her  on.  I  wish  now  to  insiat  upon  theproperty  whiçh^ 
dead  and  decaying  organic  matters  possess  of  reducing  tù 
protoxide,  and  lendering  soluble,  the  insoluble  peroxide  of  iron 
diffused  thiougl^  the  rocks;  and  i^çiprocalîy  the  power  which 
this  peroiride  haâ  of  oxidizing  and  c^osuming  th«s9  same 
organic  matters,  which  are  thereby  finally  converted  into  mh^ 
bonig  aci4,ând  water.    Thit  last  action,  let  me  eay  in  passing,  . 


fat] 
.  on  n 

St^Qj 

necesj 

wônti 

evidei 

duce 

rooks'S 

entirel 

it  was 

waters 

the  ac( 

desfcroy 

coals,  h 

■of  thesi 

glaphiti 

bonaceo 

ïon-ore 

ooal  or] 

In  th. 

lonce  difl 

Ibeds  of 

the  Gond 

of  the  ca 

magnetic 

tion  of  t] 

ent  to  tl 

oreiarç  r 

exposed  t 

agdfai  con' 

■  "«goigani 

into  thetï 

There  i 

trated  in 

.  ï>i«ulphide, 

— Mth  la.  th< 


y 


■  .,.i*'*  : 


:    «  .,■■ 


.^I  OKI.ZK  or  MEtALUPEKOns  DEPOgl^  '       229 

«  #i8traiecj  by 'th^ destructive  action  nf        .• 
:  .0»  «^oi^t  wood,  and  the  effect  oftnn   .       "^*"'^  """  ^«^^^ 
«ti«ngih  ûf  Jinen  fihre.  '  ''''  '**"^  ^  impairing  the 

We  aee  lu  the  coal  formation  fhaf  fK 
neoessaiy  for  the.  productif  17.1  ^'^'^^^«  °^«er 

evide^^l^^f,  ,y^;^^  b^^^  me,  Where  are  ti,e 

duce   the  va^t'heds  of  LnZf  ^h^ch"was  required  >to  pro- 

it  -^  the  la^e  propS^f^^^d^'Â'^^^•  "^^  *•-* 
^aters  of  thèse- earlytimes  liT  f  T^  ^  V^^«  ««"«  ««d 
the  accumulation  of  sueT^T^K V'^^'^^  ^^"d^n.d  poss^fele 

d^troyed  the  o^nicttC.tltTt  '"*  «"^^^-^"^ 
coals,  hgnites,  pyroschists  and  Z  ^"^  ^^^'  ^PP^^^  in 

■of  thèse  early  tiCs  irhô^el    ^ "^     '^"^  ^^  *^«  ^V 
faphite,  and  it  would  bT  poss  ilf  f  ^TT^  '"  *^^  '"^'^^    ' 
bonaceous  material  was  c^nTutld     ^^.^^^^^^  ^«^  nmch  car- 
rfron-or«  beds  of  theX ZlTand  ^/r^"""  ^'^'^^  ^-* 
•^  or  lignite  they  are  the  ^u^^  '^*^""^-  «^  ^^^  --h 

Cd;;:d"^;«lrhr^^^^  «f  the 

.  U  of  ore,  an7truf  ^^.X"m'  ff^^^^  in  the  form  of 
the  conditions  hâve  gro^ml  fev  ^^^V?^'"^  ""^"^*«°°. 
of  the  crbonaceoua  pS^«l  of^^i  r  ''t7^^"^^^^^ 
magnetic  and  specular  oxidfl»  Jv^  ^^'     ^^«  c^ystalline 

-t  to  the  aX  of  oItf'^,f"««*-^togetherxndiC 

o^^ar,  ^uee4  inl^rL^^'d  tlt'  ^r^^^'  ^^^^ 
exposed  to  the  oxidizinc  JiT' T  ^«"^ting. métal  is 

ag^converted  mto^^rwh   ^"''^^'*^^^^^        ^*  i« 

into  the  i«„^t^.l  d^l^l"'"*^  ^^«  *«  -'er  once  more 

Thew  is  anathet  form  in  which  ,-«,«  •    ^ 
tmted  in  nature,  that  of  s^lohS!      T  ''  ^'«quently  concen- 
.  ^-uiphide,  known  aa  Z^^  ^^ -««t  f^uently  a,  the 


^'. 


•  V-    ..'  ^ 


.fJ^.- 


230 


ORIGIN   OF  METAIXIFER0U8   DEPOSITS. 


[XII. 


^ 


iron,  is  even  to-day  forming  in  certain  waters  and  in  beds  of 
mud  and  silt,  where  it  sometimes  takes  a  beautifoUj^crystalline 
shape.  What  are  the  conditions  in  which  the  sulphide  of 
iron  is  formed  and  deposited,  instead  of  the  oxide  or  carbonate 
of  ironî  Its  production  dépends,  like  thèse,  on  decaying 
organic  matters.  Tbe  sulphates  of  litbe  and  magnesia,  which 
abound  In  sea-water,  and  in  manjr  other  natural  waters,  when 
exposed  to  ihe  action  of  decaying  plants  or  animais,  out  of 
contact  of  air,  are,  like  peroxide  of  iron",  deoxidized,  and  are 

.  Ihereby  converted  into  soluble  sulphides  ;  from  which,  if  car- 
bonic  acid  be  présent,  snlphuretted  hydrogen  gas  is  set  free. 
Such  soluble  sulphides,  or  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  are  the 
Teagents  constantly  employed  in  our  laboratories  to  converti  the 
soluble  compounds  of  many  of  the  common  lûetals,  such  as 
iron,  zinc,  lead,  copper,  and  silver,  ïïift  sulphides,  which  are 
insoluble  in  water  and  in  many  acii^s,  and  are  thus  conven- 
iently  separated  from  a  great  many  other  bodies.  Now,  when 
in  a  water  holding  iron-oxide,  sulphates  are  also  présent,  tha 
action  of  organic  matter,  deoxidizing  tl^ie  latter,  fumishes  the 
reagent  necessary  .to  couvert  the  iron  into  a  sulphide  ;  which 
in  some  conditions,  not  well  thiderstood,  contains  two  équiva- 
lents of  sulphur  for  one  of '  iron,  and  constitutes  iron-pyrites. 
I  may  hère  say  that  I  hâve  found  that  the  unstable  ^i^osuP\ 
phide,  which  Would  natuially  be  first  formed,"  may,  under  the  ^  . 
influence  of  a  persalt  of  iron,  lose  one  half  of  its  fombinéd 
iron  ;  and  that  from  this  reacsion  a  stable  bisulphide  résulta. 
This  subject  of  the  origin'  of  non-pyrites  is  still  under  inv^ti- 
gation.  * 

The  raduc\ng  action  of  organic  matters  upon  soluble  sul- 
phates 18  well  aeen  in  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  which  îs 
evolved  from  the  stagnant  sea-water  in  the  hold  of  a  ship,  and 
which  cuats  sil^  -wfosed  «o  it  with  a  black  film  of  sulphide 
of  silver,  and  for  the  same  rèakin  discolors  white-lead  paint. 
The  présence  of  sulphur  in  'the  exhalations  from  some  other 

^ecaying  matters  is  well  known,  and  in  ail  thèse  cases  a 'solu- 
ble compound  of  iron  will  act  as  a  disinfectant,  partly  by  fixing 
the  sulphur  as  an  insoluble  sulphide.     Silyei  coins  b]^ught<£ipm 


,_^- 


/ 


)l^::Â-l 


ïl'-)  ORICIN  OP  METALLITOIOUS  DEPOSITS.  231 

ftjttT^  °'  "  '"""^WP  ^  *«  Spani-h  Main  w.« 

■av.  ™.jeo„t4rr„„4iitroT^ti„ïï 

and  lead.     Why,  then,  do  not  thèse  «feia  accumuLn  in  ,! 
-.,«  Ihe  salts,„f  soda  bave  done  ^g^nT^^,  "ita    " 
^"^  »»™"y:°f  °'8a»i.i  Mfe  corne*  «gain  S  Play,  ^cLvi 

animal.     The^  WtTi  T  ^^^^»»«'^.  eithf^  vegetable  or 
as  pf  the  shore,  genewtÉjllIInhî^^  ^k,„u'«„  .^^_ 


the  lageons  pf  the  shore,  geneu, 
yntained  metals  in  an.  insolubi 


\ 


1».. 


Jphides  which'fix  their 
•»^P<i  thtts  réanove  thèm 


/ 


/.<■<>' r  f^  ■ . 


# 


■  232  ORIGm  OP  METALUFEKOUS  DEPOSlS».  [XII. 

It  is  not,  however,  in  ail  cases  necessary  to  invoke  the  direct 
action  of  orgianisms  to  seporate  £rom  water  the  dlssolved  metals. 
le  often  happens  that  the  waters  containing  thèse,  instead  of 
tf  finding  their  way  to  the  océan,  flow  into  lakes  or  enclosed 
hasins,  as  in  the  case  of  the  drainage-watere  of  an  English 
coppei^mine,  which  hâve  impfegnated  the  turf  of  a  neighhoring 
hog  to  such  an  extent  that  its  ashes  hâve  been  found  a  profita- 
ble soiuxîe  of  copper.  Under  certain  conditions,  not  yet  well 
understood,  this  métal  is  precipitated  by  organic  matters  in  the 
metallic  state,'  but  if  sidphates  are  présent,  a  sulphide  is 
formed.  Thus,  in  certain  mesozoic  slates  in  Bohemia,  sulphide 
of  copper  is  foùnd  incrusting  the  remains  of  fishes,  and  in  the 
ânes  of  New  Jersey  we  find  it  penetrating  the  stems  of 
kt  trees.  I  hâve  in  my  possession  a  portion  of  a  small 
taken  from  the  mud  of  a  spring  in  the  province  of 
lo,  in  which  the  yet  undecayed  wood  of  the  centre  is 
to  be  incrustqd  by  hard  and  brilliant  jiron-pyrites.  In 
like  manner  the  trees  found  in  the  New  Jersey  sandstone  be- 
came  incrusted  with  copper-sulphide,  which,  as  decay  went  on, 
in  great  part  replaced  the  woody  tissue^  Similar  deposits  of 
sulphides  of  copper  and  of  iron  often  took  place  in  basins 
where  the  oiganic  matter  was  présent  in  such  a  condition  or  in 
such.  quantity  as  to  be  entirely  decomposed,  and  to  leave  no 
trace  of  its  foim,  unlike  the  examples  just  mentioned.  In  this 
way  hâve  been  formed  fahlbands,  and  beds  of  pyrites  and 
other  ores. 

The  fact  that  such  deposits  are  associated  with  silver  and 
with  gold  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  thèse  metals  hâve  obeyed  . 
the  same  laws  as  iron.  and  copper.  It  is  known  that  both 
persalts  of  iron  and  soluble  sulphides  havè  the  power  of  ren- 
dering  gold  soluble,  and  its  subséquent  déposition  in  the 
'  metallic  state  is  then  ,easily  understood.* 

I  hftVe  endeavored  by  a  few  illustrations  to  show  you  by 
what  processes  some  of  the  more  common  metals  are  dissolved 
and  again  sepa^é^ted  from  their  solution  in  insoluble  forms.  It 
now  rejâiains  to  say  somewhat  of  the  :geological  rations  of 

j  1  *  SefLAppmdix  to  thia  paper. 


/ 


.■JP' 


XII.] 


ORIOm  0#  KETALUFEROUS  DEPOSITS. 


233 


Posited  d«ri„g  ,he  i^t  îï"  """^  ""«hâve  b«„  d». 
tacpnsta  ot  ir    Si,  *?""'  "  P""»'  "Web  il 

thera,  which  hâve  ^e'8nlfp,^  ftvv!l  ^   ^**  '''^"^^  «*>closo 

up  fissures  withthro^or^r  '  ^'T  °^  '"^'*'^"«°'  «^K" 

classes  of  denosits  iT  J  d^^tinguish  betweea  the  two 
and  filled  Ween  two  '  'r^T':'  '"'^'"  ^'"^  «^  be  fCmed 
vain  iCi^TC^ZZt'^^  'f  '  '""^  ^^^^^  -^^  -^^t  a 
bed  „,ay  be  so  poC^h;^^^^^^^^  «*-t»»^-    Vin,  a 

doubtfulwhether  the  proceïLl  ,  '  ''  '^^  *°  ^^^«  ^^ 

position  of  the  bed.  ^T^Zr^Tl^^C'lf''  \'" 
deposits  which  are  evideatly  postera  Si  ^  *°  '^"^  "^ 
previously  formed  strata.  Lst  ttt  n^  tf  ^^^  ^^"^«  ^ 
produced  by  the  gt^t  m^.eZn^TuU^i:'"''^-  "^'«'^«^ 
local  contn.ction  of  the  rocks  S  l^fc'  ^  '^""*'  ^*  ^^  *he 
différent  cases  been  in  operatiorluX  ''"'''  ^'^«  ^" 

to  gi^t  lengths  aud  denths     th     r^"'^'^'"'"'°^«^*«°d 
^  dependiag  very  n.uL  on  the"  XTl" '  ^'^t  'T "  " 
We  been  subjected  to  ûacture      mt     f       •  "^^  ""^''^ 
wbroken,  nature  fioesto^!w      ^^'^  *  ^'o»»  i^  our  bodies 
gmdually  brin.s  tHt  bn  '^P""  *^«  ^"^''^"-^  P^rt,  and 

i-terval/and  I    len^  i  "l*^'  "^«^  «"«  »P  ^^e  iittle 

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datera  deposit  L  thTorn  "  •''''^''  ^™«*'  '^^  «™»^-^ng 
tl^e  broken  port^^^f  irr^  ^'^^  "natter.,  which  unité 

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23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.  Y.  14580 

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234 


ORIGIN  OF  METALLIFEROUS  DEPOSITS. 


ipEtt. 


earth  are  very  varioua.     There  is  scarcely  a  spar  or  an  ôxe  to 
be  met  with  in  the  stratified  rocks  that  is  éoï  ako  found  in' 
some  of  thèse  vein-stones,  which  are  often  very  heterogenediw 
in  composition.     In  certain  veins  we  find  the  éléments  of  lim^ 
stone  or  of  granité,  and  thèse  oflen  include  the  genis,  such  as 
tourmaline,  gamet,  topaz,  hyacinth,  emerald,  and  sapphire; 
while  others  abound  in  native  metals  or  in  metallic  oxides  or 
sulphides.     The  nature  of  the  materials  thus  deposited  dépends 
very  much  on  conditions  of  température  and  of  pressure,  which 
aflfect  the  solvent  power  of  the  liquid,  and  still  more  upon  the 
nature  of  the  adjacent  rocks   and  of  the  waters  penneating 
them.     The  chemistry  of  minerai  veins  is  very  complicated. 
Many  of  thèse  fissures  penetrate  to  a  depth  of  thousands  of» 
feet  of  the  earth's  crust,  and  along  the  channels  thus  opened 
the  ascending  heated  -subterranean  waters  may  receive  in  their 
course  various  contributions  firom  the  overlying  strata.     From 
thèse  additions,  and  from  the  diminished  solubility  resulting 
fi-om  a  decrease  of  pressure  (ante,  page  204),  deposits  of  différent 
minerais  are  formed  upon  the  walls,  and  the  slow  changes  in 
composition  are  often  represented  by  successive  layers  of  unlike 
substancea     The  power  of  thèse  wateis  to  dissolve  and  bring 
fix)m  the  lower  strata  their  contained  metals  and  spars  is 
probably  due  in  great  part  to  the  alkaliue  carbonates  and 
sulphides  which  thèse  waters'  often  hold  in  solution  ;  but  the 
Chemical  history  of  the  déposition  of  the  ores  of  iron,  lead, 
copper,  silyer,  tin,  and  gold,  which  are  found  in  thèse  veins, 
demands  a  lengthened  study,  and  would  fumish  not  less  beau- 
tiful  examples  of  nature's  chemistry  than  those  I  hâve  akeady 
laid  before  you. 

The  process  of  filling  veins  has  been  going  on  from  the  earli- 
est  âges  ;  we  know  of  some  which  were  formed  bèfore  the 
Cambrian  rocks  were  deposited,  while  others  are  still  forniing, 
as  the  observations  of  Phillips  hâve  shown  us  in  Nevada,  where 
h'ot  springs  rise  to  the  surface  and  deposit  silica,  with  metallic 
ores,  which  incrusts  the  walls  of  the  fissures.  Thèse  thermal 
watere  show  that  the  agencie||^||^»feh  in  past  tiraes  gave  rise  to 
the  rich  minerai  depoaitlÈ^our  western  régions,  are  still  at 
.jragk^herer^ ..=^— — !;. „ — 


^' 


fi  fi, 


ja&..-. 


Mh, 


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-V, 

^3  ORIOIN  OF  METALLIFEROUS  DEPOSITS.  235 

•  fro.  thf  océan,  lu^Ztlmlïuf  ^  ^  ^«^«^*«^ 
extmcted.  But  in  the  com^  of  a^lM  *?•  ^  P^^**^^^ 
buried,  are  li^iviated  by  Z^eafinT     ?'  ''^^°^'"'^'  ^^P^^ 

quently  deposit  it  in  some  LUt  m      J    '°'^"  '^'^  «"^««- 
aaarichsUver-ore.     Thia  if^'r^lTl^T"^^- «^-, 

We  leam  fxom  the  historv  whl^    ^^      °^  concentration, 
important  conclusion,  thatlTd  2^  7ll  ^''"  '"'*  f '*^^^  ^'^^ 
the  globe  the  economv  of  naTl  w!     ''^T.'^  *^«  ^'''  ''^ 
are  apt,  in  explainm/ thl  '^"^'""^  ^'^^  ««°^«-     We 

refer  the  fo  Ja^n  ff  ^17""^  •''  *'^  ^"'^'«  '^''  ^ 

-ote  period,  wl^n  eo^di^^t  tj^^t':  T  ''''''''  ^"' 
vailed,  when  great  conv„l«inn  7  7^  ^  *^^  P'*^®"*  P»^ 
were  Jt  worfc  Yet  th^t  ^^  P^'"'  '"^  ^y«*«"«««  ^o^^es 
now,  as  then  in  ope^  107'      '"^"^  '"'  ^^^^^^^^  ^-«  «- 

f«>m^hesedT;erSr^i,^orberint^^^^^  '''  ^™^ 
the  iBier  metals  fix,m  the  ocej^'s  watt'      î  ,       '  ''P'"^*^"^ 

^«gions  the  -nsolidated  andT^rsSLtli'  "  '""  '*'" 

W^  Phenomena  of  the  material  world  hâve  been 

looked  upon  as  chemical  and  Dhvsiciil  ii  h.oi^        ! 
to  sDeat  nf  fï.^-     r  XL  Pnywoai,  it  has  been  customarv 

«^  Bpeajc  ot  those  of  the  oroanic  world  ah  vit«i     ti,   *    ^  ^ 
of  modem  inve8t,o«t,««  ;„  i.  ™^     ■"•®  tendéhcy 


of  modem  in3iLir:Tr„r'^'^  "^  ^^^     Thetendéhcj 


.. ','*■» 


•^ 


•  -ft^  ••     ^^  --^îM 


,.•<!■       V 


236 


OBIGIN  OF  METALLIFEBOnS  DKFOSITS. 


[XIL 


animal  and  vegetable  giowth  as  themselves  purely  ohemical 
and  physicaL  That  this  is  to  a  great  estent  tnie  must  be 
admitted,  though  I  am  not  prepared  to  concède  that  we  hâve 
in  chemical  and  physical  piocesses  the  whole  secret  of  organic 
life.-^  Still  we  are,  in  many  respects,  approximating  the'phe- 
nomena  of  the  organic  world  to  those  of  thç  minerai  kingdom  ; 
and  vfe  at  the  same  time  leam  that  thèse  so  hr  Interact  and 
dépend  upon  each  other  that  ^e  begin  to  see  a  certain  truth 
underlying  the  notion  of  those  old  philosophers  who  extended 
to  the  minerai  world  the  notion  of  a  vital  force,  which  led  them 
'  to  speak  of  the  eàrth  as  a  great  living  organism,  and  to  look 
upon  the  variouà  changes  in  its  air,  its  waters,  and  its  rocky 
depths,  as  processes  belonging  to  the  life  of  our  planet. 


♦^F 


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.  ^ 


xn.] 


OÊIGIN  OF  METALUFEROUS  DEPOSITS. 


237 


APPENDIX. 

ON  lODINE  AND  GOLD  IN  8EA-WATEB. 

24, 1872.    According  to  h^  Si  elelnl^"^  f '•  ^"^  '^'  ^^  ^«3^ 

part  of  the  iodate  l  250,000  ^lÏ^fThe  1^^^^  T 

by  decaying  oi^anic  matter  («Sd  by  most  oThef;,^         compound, 

acid,  iodine  is  set  Iree  and  mav  STS  J^i.^'  *'*'•'''  °^  ^^"ic 
with  biBulphide  oTLZn     Th«  ,-n^^*ï  ^^  '^^^'^S  *^«  ^^^^ 

converted  into  iodate    the  nrZ^^fT    •      '^^''''™'  *"d  ^«  «- 
to  complète  theStitsï^a^c"4rirn^^^ 
readily  converted  into  i<iate8  jmdT^^      ^^^' '"^'^^^  ^« 
thattheinsolubUityofthei^Tderof    1  ^^^àitions.    He  finds 

that  by  the  use  of  Z^^^tt         'IT !'f '^ ''^^' ^'  ^  ^t 
from  sLwateT^thTuf  non    ?  ?'*"^  ^°^^"'  "^^  ^  ««P^^^d 

and  its  compounds  to  oSi™       ft       t^^'^  P«>perty  of  iodine 
supposes  themt'prf^rfhe^^^^^^^^  ^/"™'  ^^^^^^^ 

the  o.des^ri.nyi-XXl^^^^^^  «^  ^  ^^  - 

wat^  o^r.Tr^K^  '^'  "^^  '^^°^^*  ^  announced  that  the  eea 

;;iiii^Lrfof7id  :s;;:itt;7  ^^-  «"^  - 

a  ton  of  wfttPr  TV,  ■  •  '  ®*™*«<1  V  h™  at  about  one  grain  to 
the  precipitoted  B^lr;  {  as  «m  aurate  of  baiyta  adhering  to 
by  Sor  WgTes:  ™^^^^^^  -^  hâve  been  devised 


.       ^^  ^escribed,     I|^  vïewB  ttaintained .  by  Ueb^ 


:i'.i- 


•:* 


''^^ 


■^^^ 


238 


ORIGIN  OF'  METALLIFER0U8  DEPOSITS. 


[XIL 


Wurtz,  Qenth,  and  Selwyn  as  to*  the  solution  and  re-depoaition  of 
gold  in  modem  alluvial  deposits,  seem  to  be  well-grounded,  and  we 
are  1^  to  the  conclusion  that  the  circulation  ôf  this  métal  in  nature 
is  as  ëàsiljr  effected  as  that  of  iron  or  of  copper.  The  transfer  of 
certain  other  éléments,  such  as  titanium,  chrome,  and  tin,  or  at  leaat 
their  accumulation  in  concentrated  forms,  appears,  on  the  contrary, 
to  require  conditions  which  are  no  longer  operative,  at  least  at  the 
surface  of  the  earth. 

It  should  hère  be  noticed,  that  Professor  Henry  Wurtz  of  New 
York,  in  a  paper  tead  before  the  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement  of  Science  in  18Q6,  and  published  in  the  Journal  of 
Mining  in  1868,  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  ocean-waters  con- 
tain  gold,  and  uiged  expérimenta  for  its  détection.  According  to 
his  balculations,  the  total  amount  of  gold  hitherto  extracted  from 
the  earth,  and  estimated  at  two  thousand  million  dollars,  would 
give  only  one  dollar  "for  two  hundred  and  eighty  million  tons  of 
sea-water;  while  ^m  the  expérimenta  of  So^stadt  it  would  appear 
that  the  same  quantity  of  gold  is  actually  contained  in  twenty-five 
tons  of  "water. 


1^' 
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xm 

THE  GEOGNÔSY  OF  THE  APPALACHI 
ANS  AND  THE  ORIGIN  OF  CRYSTAl' 
LINE  ROCKS.  ^JtiblAL- 

M.  1871.     It   appears  ta  the  Pn>œedta«Tf  ^k  "'/"'"l"*  »»  IndJanapolis.  Augu^t 

French  t«naIation  of  the  entireadS  wïTS  „.  h^f  ."if  ."".*  "^^  *"  ''•*"'»•  ^ 
In  reprinttag  it  a  tew  sentences  ha^  ^n^ wu^."?*  ^  *•""  ^"«'  Scientifique, 
to  the  Cambrian  rocks  of  St  Sri^uî^d.^'n**^  ""  *"''  °^'^  «'««»«««• 
Ubrador  séries  bas  been  lntrx,duS.^,ÏÏ  iT'T'''^''  "'  ">"  ^'^'^^  ^r 
part  In  the  second  part  of  the^r^^^S^J  ?"!f  '^'*'"°'«'  '"  '•"«  ««t 
Thèse  new  portions  are  distimmishi^wi^^  ''"P»'*^*  additions  bave  been  mada 

In  the  American  Journal Tsl^^w     'S*u*"""°*^  *"  »'««''«»•• 
oism  of  some  parU  of  trl°,L^.tri^LL?ÎTb'"  V^''^-'  -  «^-^  criU- 
«ame  Journal  for  July,  I872.  madê  a  wpT^ch  ,.  ^    ^:*°  "'"'^^  *"*  ""«"or  ta  the 

.M  be'geJnT;„':ifX^™.,7»  """t- *''™°  *"" 
eidtag  offlcer  a»  tou  .»  .„  ^  A«»ociat,„n.     The  pre. 

b««  «f  theTIiLtn    °  *^'  """ï"""  '■"»  ""*  «">  ■"™- 

#■ 


FT^^r^i^r^  I I  "  '"I  |i   I       II     II   I  STffiMÎïrTffTnnSEpjnHffjî^^ 


-     l 


240 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIAN8. 


[XIII, 


1  ( 


laws  which'  hâve  presided  over  the  development  of  our  earth," 
and  while  practical  geology  or  geognosy  studies  its  natural 
history  as  exhibited  in  its  physical  structure,  its  mineralogy 
and  its  paleontology,  it  will  be  seen  that  this  comprehensive 
science  is  a  stranger  to  none  of  the  studies  which  are  includëd 
in  the  plan  of  our  Association,  but-rather  sits  like  a  sovereign, 
commanding  in  tum  the  services  of  ail. 

As  a  student  of  geology,  I  scarcely  know  with  which  section 
of  the  Association  I  shoiiTd  to-day  identify  myself.  Let  me 
endéàvor  rather  to  médiate  between  the  the  two,  and  show 
you  somewhat  of  the  twofold  aspect  which  geological  science 
présents,  when  viewed  respectively  from"  the  standpoints  of 
natural  history  and  of  chemistry.  I  can  hardly  do  this  better 
than  in  the  discussion  of  a  subject  which  for  the  last  généra- 
tion has  afiForded  some  of  the  most  fascinating  and  perplexing 
problems  for  our  geological  students  ;  namely,  the  history  of  - 
the  great  Appalachian  mountain  chain.  Nowhere  else  in  the 
world  has  a  mountain  system  of  such  geographical  extent  and 
such  geological  complexity  been  studied  by  such  a  number  of 
zealous  and  leamed  investigators,  and  no  other,  it  may  be  con- 
fidently  asserted,  has  fumished  such  vast  and  important  results 
to  geological  science.  The  laws  of  mountain  structure,  as  re- 
vealed  in  the  Appalachians  by  the  labors  of  the  bfothers  Henry 
D.  and  William  B.  Rogçrs,  of  Lesley  and  of  Hall,  hâve  given 
to  the  world  the  basis  of  a  correct  system  of  orographie  geol- 
<^gy,*  and  many  of  the  obscure  geological  problems  of  Europe 
.^^  bicorne  plain  when  read  in  the  light  of  our  i^mençan  expéri- 
ence, To  discuss  even  in  the  most  summary  manner  aU  pf  the 
questions  which  the  thème'  suggests,  would  be  a  task  too  long 
for  the  présent  occasion  ;  but  I  shaU  endeavor  in  the  first  place 
to  bring  before  you  certain  facts  in  the  history  of  the  physical 
structure,  the  mineralogy,  and  the  paleontolo^of  the  Appalachi- 
ans ;  and,  in  the  second  place,  to  discuss  some  of  the  physical, 
chemioal,  and  biological  conditions  which  bave  presided  over 
the  formation  of  the  àncient  crystalline  rocks  that  make  up  so 
large  a  portion  of  our  great  eastem  mountain  system. 

•  Amer.  Jonr.  SoL  ^%  XXX.  406  ;  and  ante,  pages  49  -  58, 


■;  I 


■\^^ 


Xllt] 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPAUCHIANa 


241 


I. 


The  Geoonost  ok  thk  Appal.chuk  Ststeh. 

the  attention  of  gXi^    T  ^T  "'  "  '""^  '"^^  ^'^^'-^ 
York,  from  OgdeSbuTon  the  St  ?  """  "^'^'^'^  ^^- 
Maine,  shows  the  exisfen  °  of  thl  ^T^'''"  *°  ^''^^''^  i» 
crptalline  scbists.     17^1  th^T.      '^^  '"«^"^^  «^  "««k« 
Lake  Champlain  the  G^Zm     ^^''''^^^'  ^  th.  west  of 
White  Enta"  *of  Sra^'v  "  l''^™^"*'  -^  the 
minei^ogical  differen  Js TetwlT.."^'     ?'  "^^^^^^^^^  ^^ 
giom  a,^  such  a«  to  Zl  attm<S   h'  T^  '^  ''^  ^'''^  '- 
earlier  observe^     ^o^,  otlf  tÏ!  ?"!^°"  "'"°^«  «^  ^^« 

cf  Text-Book  (2d  S  fo^  Lf     di«tinguished  in  hi^  Geologi- 
-  "dlck,  and-that  of  theSn  M^^^^        *^«'««  «^  t^e  Adi^S- 
-^ved  divisions  ofpri^^\^^"°^^^^^^    Adopting  the  then 
«^ks,  he  divided  eacnZe^l^rtr^h'^^r'  ^«^^«'^ 
he:named  carbosiferous,  onTrtzl   «nT  f "'' ''"^'*' ^^'^^ 
by  the  first,  schistose,  6r  ^^  «^^  f^r"'  '  ""^^^ 
hun.  might  include  cirbo^or^tter     tT    !?  ''''''^^"S  *° 
■    m  fact,  corresponded  to  cC^^   a^.  Thèse  th«e  divisions, 
«upposed  by  him  to  be  ^^ted  tT)l       ^"^^  "^'^  ^''^ 
m^s.     Thiswasapparent7J^«fi  ?  "^^  ^"^^'  ^  ^^ 

mes  in  sedimenE  *£  t^t'!^^^^^^^^ 

1863.*    Without^so^Ll  J.  '."^""^  ^"«^'«d  i^ 

of  the  AdirondacChrJ,^^'T',^''°'"^  *^^  ^^''««^ 
division  of  the  pri^ia^  Z^f  .ï"  *^'  ^"^^*  °'  carboniferou» 
Green  Mountains^S  Th«^  t^e  ciystaUine  schists  of  the 
western  base  we^  ^1  tht  aZ  ^  T'  "^'""  «^^  *h«- 
of  thifl  primary  serieT    Th«   ^^^"^  ^"^  "*^'^'*«"«  divisions 

farthertestwLX  J    e'^ÏÏ^Tf  ^  H"r^".^^^°««*'» 
'--ed  as  the  ^t  and  seeonTdT^t  ^tCt^-:: 

Amer.  Jour.  Sci  (2)  XJTTV  laa 
tj»  «îjaaect,  with  references  to  lU  itS'  *""'"  """*"•*  Présentation  of 
IWeedingH  of  the  Americn  A^^J^^^'  if/ff  ^^^  I»"'  Newberr,  In  th.  " 
1873,  page  185.  ««wiauon  for  the  Advancenient  of  Science  for 


&.v»a 


"  -TT- 


242 


GEOGNOST  OF  THE  APPALACHIAlïS. 


[zm. 


riea,  and  were  foUowed  by  ito  colcoreous  division,  which  seems 
to  hâve  included  the  limestones  of  the  Trenton  group  ;  ail  of 
thèse  rocks  being  rapposed  to  dip  to  the  west^ard,  and  away 
from  the  centml  axis  of  the  Green  Mountains.  Eaton  does  uot 
appear  to  hâve  studied  the  White  Mountains,  nor  to  hâve  con- 
sidered  their  geological  relations.  They  were,  however,  clearly 
dLstinguished  from  the  former  by  Charles  T.  Jackson  in  1844, 
when,  in  his  report  on  the  geology  of  New  Ilampshire,  he  de- 
scribed  the  White  Mountains  as  an  axis  of  primary  granité, 
gneiss,  and  mica-schist,  overlaid  successively,  both  to  the  east 
and  west,  by  what  were  designated  by  him  Cambrîan  and  Silu- 
rian  rocks  ;  thèse  names  having,  since  the  time  of  Eaton's  pub- 
lication, been  introdnced  by  English  geologists.  Whilo  thèse 
overlying  rocks  in  Maiiie  were  unaltered,  he  couceived  that  the 
corresponding  strata  in  Vermont,  on  the  western  aide  of  the 
granitic  axis,  had  been  changed  by  the  action  of  intrusive  ser- 
pentines and  intrusive  quartzites,  which  had  altered  the  Cam- 
brian  into  the  Green  Mountain  gneiss,  and  converted  a  portion 
of  the  fossiliferous  Silurian  limestones  of  the  Champlain  valley 
into  white  raarbles.*  Jackson  did  not  institua  aiïycompari- 
son  between  the  rocks  of  the  White  Mountains  and  those  of 
the  Adirondacks  ;,  but  the  Messrs.  Bogers  in  the  same  yciar, 
1844,  published  an  essay  on  the  geological  âge  of  the  White 
Mountains,  in  which,  while  endeavoring  to  show  their  Silurian 
âge,  they  speak  of  them  as  having  been  hitherto  regarded  as 
consisting  exclusively  of  varions  modifications  of  granitic  and 
gneissoid  rocks,  and  as  belonging  "to  the  so-called  primary 
periods  of  géologie  time."t  They,  however,  considered  that 
thèse  rocks  had  rather  the  aspect  of  altered  palœozoic  strata,  and 
suggested  that  they  mighi  be,  in  part,  at  least,  of  the  âge  of  the 
Clinton  division  of  the  New  York  System  ;  a  view  which  was* 
supported  by  the  présence  of  what  were  at  the  time  regarded 
by  the  Messrs.  Hogers  as  organic  remains.  Subseqnently,  in 
1847,t  they  announced  that  they  no  longer  considered  thèse  to 

■  Geology  of  New  Hampshire,  160-162. 
t  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.  (2),  I.  411. 
î  Ibid.  (2),  V.  116. 


*  /  w  *     r   *\. 


-S" 


ziii.) 


OEOONOSY  OP  THE  APPALACHUNS. 


243 


De  of  oiganic  origin,  without,  however  »«♦«.«♦,•      xu  • 

place  m  my  «dclrM»  the  discuMion  „f  .h  ^T^°«  ^  '^°*er 

tiv.  cl««te«  of  the  th  JTT^        .   °°  '"""y  "»  •J"''»''- 
«e^ioneO.  „hich  ^^  i^Z^^Z^^l^^:^  ^"'' 
por^^e^  «eolo^  l,,„,,  „,,  „^.^  „,re Ip^"^  - 
1.    /A«  Adtrondaci  or  LaurenticU  Serù»       tk  ^  ,' 

very  coa«e  gmiaed.  and  genemlly  rS^i^Hf    ^T""'  '^'"^ 

tam  much  mica,  and  the^mica-schista  ^oftlnT  ''  '°°- 

«taurolite,  garnet,  andaluaite,  an^cyl  if  1  T^"'^  ^*^ 
the  White  Mountain  séries  2.ZT^'       "^^^teristic  of 

-ks.  Theya.alsolrte'of^terX'^'^r'^^^^^ 
the  other  two  écries.  Th.  quari^Tand  The  n  ""^  '""^  "^ 
hornblendic  rocks,  associated'with  ^t  ^1^?/""  Tf 
hne  lunestone,  with  graphite,  and  ^.Ztrofrn"^'^' 
-o^re,  ,.e  a  peculiar  chanter  to  po.^3  Sel^tt 

-  a  wg. ja  ^tirr  «r^  Crr  ^r '^^^  ^^ 

the  form  of  a  true  gneiss  whTI  '  2^  ,^^  ^^'^  ^""»« 
tban  the  typical  iT^tia;  l£  "t;!"^^  "'^'^  -— 
Phyritic,  reddish  varieties  œm^T^w    P,  «««"«"gniined,  poi. 

g^enish  and  grayLh  W  fi,r'««/./«'^«-%  of  pale 
which  hâve  beef  nolLd  2.  ^^  J-^zxferous  porphyries, 
pilent  State  of  our  faSS^' 'X,  ^  "?'"PP*^'  ^^  th« 
sive  stratified  diontS^  a^d  f^'^'^^^   "^^  Maa- 

andferrife^ua  d^,'"^J^Î;*"*''^^'"^■^^°^^ 

gneissic  sériel  and  ^tf^-.  ^^^<^  also  characterize  thi^ 

01^.  gene^y  a  ir  tT^^  ^iated^^th  beds  of  irt»n- 

- ^'-"■^■"        "^  ««î««^  eopper,  aniamony,  and  gold  «re  fr^ 


\ 


)(fc,/!t"'  t^-il*.      V"^»kfc-"V-!ft^  î  j«       !i 


■  "^;?0"'.T'^'^.!^t''v'^'^'-'--^?^î.\'  'f  "^T^V-'. 


'^' 


244 


GEOGNQSY.OF  THE  APPALACHIAnS. 


[XIIL 


\. 


^/~>~ 


quently  met  with  in.this  séries.  The  gneisses  often  paaa  iiito 
Bchintose  niicaceouB  quartzites,  and  the  orgillite^,  which  abouijd, 
&equ6ntly  assume  a  soft  unctuous  cbaracter,  which  bas  acquired 
for  thehi  thé  name  of  talcoso  or  nacreous  îuates,  though  antd  jsis 
shows  them  not  to  be  magnésian,  but  to  consist  essentiolly  of 
a  hydrous  micaceous  minerai  allied  to  paragonite.  They  are 
sometime»  black  and  graphitic.        .     ,  '      " 

III.  The  White  Mountain  iSerùê.  —  This  séries  is  cbaracter^ 
ized  by  the  prédominance  of  well-defined  mica-schists  interstrîati- 
fied  with  mi(^eou8  gneisses.  Thèse  ktter  are  ordinarily  ligbt 
cblored  from  the  présence  of  white  feldspar,  and,  though'gener- 
ally  fine  in  texture,  are,  sonietimes  coarse  grained  and  porpby-  > 
ritic.  They  are  less  strong  and  cohérent  than  the  gneisses  of 
;  the  Laurentian,  and  pass,  tbrough  the  prédominance  of  mic^ 
.:  into  .^lica-schists,  which  are  themselves  more  or  less  tender  a^d 
friable,  and  présent  -every  variety,  from  a  coarse  gneiss-liko 
aggregate  down  to  a  fine-grained  schist,  which  passes  into  ar- 
gillite.  The  micaceous  schists  of  this  séries  are  geneially  njuch 
richer  in  mica  than  those  of  the  preceding  séries,  and  ofton 
contain  a  large  proportion  of  well-defined  crystalline  table» 
belonging  to  the  species  muscovite.  The  cleavage  of  thèse 
micaceous  schists  is  generally,  if  not  always,  coïncident  with  . 
the  beddin^  ;  but  the  platea  of  mica  in  the  coarser-grained 
varietiës  are  often  aia»hged  at  varions  angles  to  the  cleayage 
and  bedding-platle,  showihg  that  they  were  developed  ofter 
sédimentation,  by  crystallization  in  the  mass,  a''circunistance 
which  distinguishes  them  from  rocks  derived  from  the  ruins  of 
thèse,  which  are  met  with  in  more  récent  séries.    The  White 

.  Mountain  rocks  also  include  beds  of  micaceous  quartzite.  Tho 
basic  silicates  in  this  séries  are  represented  chiefiy  by  dark- 
colored  gneiâse9  and  schists  in  which  hornblende  takes  the 
place  of  mica.  Thèse  pass  occatdonally  into  beds  of  dark  horn- 
blende Toek,  somettmes  holding  gameta.    Beds  of  crystalline 

'  limestone  occur  in  the  schists  qi  the  White  Mountain  séries, 
and  are  sometimes  accompamed  by  pyroxene,  gamet,  idocrase, 
sphene,  and  graphite,  as  in  the  corresponding  rocks*  of  the 
Laurentian,  which  this  séries,  in  its  more  ipieiasic*  portions,' 


l  '  I  ■ 


■    .  ..ri   ■  '       ■        ■    ■  •  ^ 

garnet.     Thèse  schiZTrf  ***"'^^>  «ndalusite,  cyanite,  aftd 
New  Hampshi:.f  andlTattSte^t^^  ^^  ^"  ^^«^-' 

Ime,  and  lepidolite,  ànd  obcaaiônX       !^-       ^'^^^  *^"™*- 
columbite.    ke  oAn.ÏÏ  jTf^^J^  contaiiung  tinatone  and 

queritly  contain  tounnalLTbuTL^!  ^       ^'^  «"''^««^  ^'^ 

varions  crystaUine  schi8t8,4hich  a,^  W T  ?'.  "^''""^  ^'^      • 

under  the  name  of  gneiLTol\Z.^-  ^^"^ /"«^«^ded  together 
,  tricts,  the  most  noXerl  the  ^rj^'^'-  ^^  "»^  ^^ 
-rthwest  of  the  MesoS  i^t  ^ ^^',  ^Tf."  '^^*'  *^  *^« 
of  the  Highlands  of  New  &  Jd  K  t  *^'  ««"«""«tion 
i"g  the  Delaware  near  Easton  iTonf     ^    '^'  ^^''^  '"^"^ 

Pennsylvania  and  MaiyTntlnrCS  T'"'^^ 

the  Blue  Ridge.     The  gne^  ZiZV^'.  ""^"^  ^*  «PP«««  ^^ 

isdescribedas^ifferingToSelbtf      *^'*""  Pennsylvania   ^^ 
n>08t  district,  beinjr  n^ZlÏÏ   ^  ^"^"^  *^^*  °^t^«  ««"thern- 

bed,  of  micaZus,  talcTse'  br  .hï       îî^i  °^  '"^  ^«"«i^erable  -   ' 
rocks  o^  the  south  ,n  2iit     Th^    .    *"'  ^^^''^  ^«^^^  the. 
to  sho;^  that  the  gneis^Sl  'hi-^tT.:*         *""  ^"^  ^"^«•«»' 

«an  System  of  cryst^netct      Th  ^^''.''^^'  ^^  ^^rén-         , 
district  of  Pennsvlvania   f^K      *  .*  ^"'"^  °^  ^^«  «i^dle 


,^ 


%         .'^i 


^^^^^^"^^  ^"^^by  Eogers  as  rLeii 


^•^ 


'itM.SL 


246 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS. 


[XIII. 


bling  ^hat  6f  the  South  Mountain,  or  northem  district,  and  to 
^  consist  cjiiefly  of  white  feldspathic  and  dark  homblendic  gneiss, 
with  very  little  mica,  and  with  crystalline  limestones. 

The  gneiss  of  the  third  or^southern  district  (tiiat  lying  to 
the  south  of  the  Montgoniery  and  Chester  valleys)  cornes  from 
beneath  the  Mesozoic  of  New  Jersey  about  six  miles  nori;h- 
east  of  Trenton,  and,  stretching  southwestward,  occupies  the 
sonthem  border  of  Pennsylvania,  extending  into  Delaware  and 
"     Maryland.     It  is  subdivided  by  Eogera  into  three  belts.     The 
tirst  6r  most  southem  of  thèse,  passing  thiourfi  Philadelphie, 
consists  of  alternations  of  dark  homblendic  and  highly  mica- 
ceous  gneiss,  with  abundance  of  mica-slate,  sometimes  coarse 
grained,  and  at  other  times  so  fine  grained  as  to  constitute  a 
sort  of  whet-slate.     To  the  northwestward  the  strata  become 
still  more  micaceous,  with  gamets  and  beds  of  hornblende 
slate,  till  we  reach  the  second  subdivision,  which  consists  of  a 
great  belt  of  highly  talcose  and  micaceous  schists,  with  steatite 
and  serpentine,  and  is  in  its  tum  succeeded  by  a  thiid  nairow 
belt,  resembhng  the  less  micaceous  members  of  the  first  or 
southemmost  subdivision.     The  micaceous  schists  of  this  ré- 
gion abound  in  staurolite,  gamet,  cyanite,  and  corandum,  and 
are  traversed  by  numerous  irregular  granitic  veins  containing 
béryl  and  tourmaline.     Ail  of  thèse  characters  lead  us  to  refer 
the  gneis»  of  this  southem  district  to  the  third,  or  White 
Mountain  séries,  with  the  exception  of  the  middle  subdivision, 
which  présents  the  aspect  of  the  second,  or  Green  Mountain 
séries. 

^  Above  the  hypozoic  gneisses  Rogers  bas  placed  his  azoic  or 
.•if  s|$mi-metamorphic  séries,  which  is  traceable  from  the  vicinity 
of  Trenton  to  the  Schuylkill,  along  the  northem  boundary  oif 
the  southenPhypozoic  gneiss  district.  This  séries  is  supposed 
by  Rogers  to  be  an  altered  form  of  the  primai  sandstones  and 
slates,  and  is  described  as  consisting  of  a  feldspathic  quartzite, 
or  eurite,  containing  in  some  cases  porphyritic  beds  with  crys- 
,.  tais  of  feldspar  and  hornblende,  together  with  various  crystal- 
line  schists  ;  including,  in  fact,  the  whole  of  the  great  serpentine 
^J^oLMffl^omety^jCilggter^jmAJ^ncaater^fa  with  it»  = 


r  w- 


Âé 


't'Ir 


'•■^ 


"^1  ' 


2UL] 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS. 


247 


resemble  the  underlvina  hvLf    •  t^^^ rocks  so  much 

^e  hâve  in  this  «H.aUeî  ^o  c  o;  1  !         'ï?  *"  ^"«^^  t^^* 
Montgomery  and  Chesterv^ll  "*t*^°^hi«  ««ries  of- the 

along  their  southern  b^Lt   ^     ^^"'^  ^'''  ^««^  deson^ed 
tain  and  the  Wh  te  Zt  '  '  ''P':^^"*^"»  ^^e  Green  Moun- 

serpentinerock^^aZfw  w  "^^  '"^  *^^  '"«^'^^  *^«  ««t^  of 

buTof  wide^SCtt  :L  ""'"^^'^  «thologically  simUar, 
It  8houId  be  said  2  S  -*  """'^"''"^  ^^^^y  improbable. 
thengenerally^Jt^dl^rA'"  acco«iance  with  the  notions 

m^^-achists  into  steatitic  and  ÏÏS  It'  """^"«  ^'^ 

tj^  horion  of  the  p^T^roifd^iZrwir^^^^^^^^ 

On  the  contn^   a  ^e/d  ff  '  7 ''"? '^  ^'^^*^"^«  ^'^'^ 

foliow  fi«m  ce^ikU^lH  f  ^^iirt^^^  """^'  ^^^"  ^ 
metamorphic  DrimRl  «+«*        *^^   .'^^-    P®  azoïc  or  so^alled 

the  r^icaceo^  and  gnS^t  st^  ^^  *''  T"'*^""^  "^"«  ' 
of  the  southem  distriTof         u.  *^  '^"'^^'"^  subdivision 
thèse  lasttef^       îu      °^  «*^°*"«d  hypozoic  rocks,  limiting   - 
or  ^àTZl^Z:^^'^^^^^^^       -i-te  local  c^ntortioL' 
for  the  most  t^rt  Ï  u        -ï  *«"»P»'»«^«Ij  «moderato  dips. 

•^«««e",  G«„ogy  of  Pean^ylvan.^  I.  pp.  «9.7,,  ^,  154-168. 


'    i!^      ^ 


^J    A.i 


3'^L^^t. 


i 


248 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS. 


[XIIL 


older  underlying  rocks  belonging,  not  to  the  palœozoic  System, 
but  to  our  second  séries  of  crystalline  schists.  We  conclude, 
then,  that  while  the  gneisses  to  the  northwest,  and  probably 
those  along  the  southeast  rim  of  the  mesozoic  basin  of  Penn- 
sylvanie, are  Laurentian,  the  great  valley  southward  to  the 
Delaware  is  occupied  by  the  rocks  of  the  Green  Mountain 
and  White  Mountaift  séries.  The  same  two  types  of  rocks, 
extending  to  the  northèast,  are  developed  about  New  York 
City,  in  the  mica-schîsts  of  Manhattan  and  the  serpentines  of 
Staten  Island  and  Hoboken  ;  whUe  in  the  range  of  the  High- 
lands,  the  Laurentian  gneiss  belt  of  the  South  Mountain 
crosses  the  Hudson  River. 

The  three  séries  of  gneissic  rocks  which  we  bave  distin- 
guished  in  our  section  to  the  northward  hâve,  in  southeastern 
New  York,  as  in  Pennsylvania,  been  grouped  together  in  the 
I»imary  System,  and  may  thence  ail  be  traced  into  western 
New  England.     In  Dr.  Percival's  Geological  Eeport  and  Map 
of  Connecticut,  published   in  1840,  it  will  be  seen  that  he 
refers  to  the  gneiss  of  the  Highlands  two  gneissic  areas  in 
Litchfield  County  ;  the  one  occupyiug  parts  of  Comwall  and 
Ell8worth,im4  the  other  extending  from   Torrington,  north- 
ward througb;  Winchester,  Norfolk,  and  Colebrooke  into  Berk- 
shire   County,   Massachusetts.      Further   investigations    may 
confinn  the  acmiracy  of  Percival's  identification,  and  show  Oie 
Laurentian  ag^^of  thèse  New  England  gneisses,  a  view  which 
is  apparently  supported  by  the  mineralogical  characters  of 
some  of  the  rocks  in  this  région.    Eihmons  informs  us  that 
primary  limestones  with  graphite  (perhaps  Laurentian)  are 
met  with  in  the  Hoosic  range  i»  Massachusetts  east  of  the 
Stockbridge  (Taconic)  Ëmestonea.  ' 

The  rocks  of  the  second  séries  are  tiaceable  from  south-  . 
wpstem  Connecticut  northward  to  the  Green  Mountains  in 
Vermont,  and  the  micaceous  schists  and  gneisses  of  the  third, 
or  White  Mountain  séries  are  found  both  to  the  east  and  thé 
west  of  the  mesozoic  valley  in  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts. 
They  alao  ocoupy  a  considérable  area  in  eastem  Vermont, 
where  they  are  separated  from  the  White  Mountain  range  by 


.^•VAv 


■■] 


J    "^    î.^^PTPI'KSfî 


XllL] 


GEOGNOSY  OP  THE  APPALACHUNa 


249 


—  ^tit 

t««d  as  far  as  PoSTî^  J      T,!.^  ^"^^"'^  ^^P^'  -* 
séries.  '  ""^'^  *PP^^  t«  belong  to  the  second 

vertical  attitude,  and  are  ako'C'if  tï'  ^ ''  ^  '  "^^^ 
««?<!  Brighton.  Saugus  and  LynXu  Th  ""'T-  ''  ^*«^ 
région  -éo  the  gneisses  with  emplit  i^  ''^^'"°^  '"^  ^^^ 
ford,  etc.,  which  I  Lave  refeS^  th  T  ''  ^'^'^^^ 

hâve  yet  to  te  detenuined      ^         ^'  I^urentian  séries,* 

P^nT;,t^.ttto"^— ^  roc^  Of 

Jogers  informa  us,  theyZ^  i^.  J^^!  ^^^«'^'  ««  H.  D. 
I«dge.     It  remain^  to  be^^X  ,    T"^°'  '^  '^«  B^"« 
we  hâve  pointed  ont  in  PeTllt^   \'  '^^  *^  "^"^'^^ 
thisregion.    A  g^t  beU  7^^^^^^  V ^  "'^^'"'^  ^ 
Virginia  through  î^orth  S  Z!tun     .""^^  "^'«"^s  from 
Tennessee.  whL,  ZdW  to  L  T^k* '  "^'  ^°^  -»^- 
the  Potsdam.    It  is  «Ly  lom  ft^       '  ^^"^  '^^  "«^«riie 
geology  of  South  CaiS  ZJtj"^"^  '^  ^^^^^  °°  ^^e 

The  former,  as  described  bv  ),;«.  •  Mountain  séries, 

and  epidotic  schists  wi^  c^ontl?  Hf  ''  '*^«'^'  «'^'<^ritic, 
serpentines.     It  ^yZ  to^  'th^ï*^  «ctinolite-rock,  and 

notion  of  the  eruptiveorigint?ti«I   ÎV""  ^'^^"^  *«  ^^e 
observations  of  Lmon"    w!       .*  ^^'^  '^^«'  ^'^'«l^  t^e 

Mountainshavesho.n^'be'TteVbK  T^  "/'^  ^"«" 
Carohna  generaUy  dip  at  verv  h^r     ,        ^  "^^^  *^  8°"*^ 

««a  of  Ande«on  and  AbSe  ?L'"?  ''•    '^^^  ^'  »"«i««i« 

homblendic  schiste,  and  is  eut  hv  ^^^^^^  micaceous  and 
^»l<iing  gamet,  ^ounnaÇonri^T^^^  ^ 


im«rfo«,  Jon™.,  of  Science  (2).  XLIX  76. 


'  «  tiifi-^aJay  -  '  *  &)**  4  c 


4  '„V,,.*k., 


,-     Ji 


*#' 


:,.i 


250 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS. 


[XIIL 


hâve  the  characters  of  the  White  Mountain  séries,  appear,  from 
the  incidental  observations  to  be  found  in  Lieber's  -reports,  to 
belong  to  a  higher  group  than  the  chloritic  and  serpentine 
séries,  and  to  dip  at  comparatively  moderate  angles.* 

Professor  Emmons,  whose  attention  was  early  turned  to  the 
geology  of  western  New  England,  did  not  distinguish  between 
the  three  types  which  we  hâve  defined,  but,  like  Eogers  in 
Pennsylvania,  included  ail  the  crystaUine  rocks  of  that  région 
in  the  primary  System.  It  is  to  him,  however,  that  we  owe 
the  fîrst  correct  notions  of  the  geological  nature  and  relations 
of  the  Green  Mountains.  Thèse,  he  bas  remarked,  are  often 
made  to  include  two  ranges  ^f  hills  belonging  to  différent 
geological  séries.  The  eastern  Tange,  including  the  Hoosic 
Mountain  in  Massachusetts  and  Mount  Mausfield  in  Yermont, 
he  referred  to  the  primary  ;  which  he  described  as  including 
gneiss,  mica-schist,  talcose  slate,  and  hornblende,  with  beds  and 
veius  of  granité,  limestone,  serpentine,  and  trap.  He  declared, 
moreover,  that  there  is  no  clear  line  of  démarcation  among  the 
various  schistose  primary  rocks,  and  cited,  as  an  illustration, 
the  passage  into  each  otber  of  serpentine,  steatite,  and  talcose 
schist.  His  description  of  the  crystaUine  rocks  of  this  range 
will  be  recogni2ed  as  comprehensive  and  truthful. 

[*  My  own  observations  hâve  since  shown  me  that  the  rocks  of  the  White 
Mountain  séries  are  largely  displayed,  and  rarely  at  high  angles,  in  the  Blue 
Ridge  in  Carroll  County,  Virginia,  thence  southwestward  at  leaat  as  far  as 
Ashe  County,  North  Carolina,  and  again  in  Folk  County,  Tennessee.  The 
lithological  study  in  thèse  régions  is  rendered  difScuIt  by  the  fact  that  they 
are  covered,  often  to  a  depth  of  a  hondred  feet  or  more,  by  the  undisturbed 
products  of  their  own  décomposition,  the  protoxide  bases  having  been  re- 
nioved  by  solution  from  the  feldspar  and  the  hornblende,  and  the  whole  rock, 
with  the  exception  of  the  quartzose  layers,  reduced  to  a  clayey  mass,  still, 
however,  showing  the  inclined  planes  of  stratification.  The  immense  veins 
of  pyritous  copper-ores,  which  thèse  rocks  enclose  (ante,  page  217),  hâve  in 
like  manper  been  changed,  to  as  great  depths,  into  hydrous  peroxide  of  iron. 
I  hâve  already  alluded  to  the  significance,  both  chemical  and  geological,  of 
this  décomposition,  and  to  its  great  antiquity  (ante,  page  10).  The  observa* 
tions  of  C.  A.  White,  in  the  northwest,  show  that  such  a  décomposition  of 
the  Eozoic  gneisses  was  anterior  to  the  cretaceous  period,  while  in  Missouri, 
it  appears  from  the  studios  of  R  Pumpelly,  conHrmed  by  my  own  observa- 
tions, that  the  quàrtzif^rous  porphyries  with  which  the  iron-ores  of  that 
région  occur,w«r«^^m!  decompoâed  beforg  the  déposition  of  tb»  Cambria 


■sndstones.] 


'&- 


ii*. 


XIII.] 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS. 


251 


north  to  LS  dot  tt  îl  .  "T  ^'  ^^^^'^  fr««^ 
Massachusetts,  andiJra^^^^^^  ^'.  "'  ""«^  ^«'^  ^^^ 
tains.     The  W  p^^ons^fT^^^^^^^  !'^  ^^^^  ^-- 

Emmons,  are  schisLe  Zu  11  Tf"  '^"T'  ''"'""°^  *^ 

primaryschistswhichHeTothee^tofther   TH  "i"  ^' *'^ 
schists  of  Berkshire  are  saidr^  *'^*'''°'-     ^hus  the  talcose 

séries  of  the  Green  Mn,Z  ^°''^''^.  ^  *^«  older  crystalline 

possihilit;of^"r:eW  '^  *"«  *^^*  *^« 

too  much  overlooked  bj  Z W^I^' "  ''"^  "^ ^  ^^  ^- 
marks  that,  while  the  tdLe  s  T^  fh  '  "^^'^^'^  ^ 

with  steatite  and  wit^holuenL   t^^^  '"  ^^^^*^^ 

the  Taconic  rocks  and  alTT;  '  ^  ^"^  °'^''  ^''"^^  '^ 
(rutile),  etc.,  .^  ^Z^T^^:;^^^  '^'- 
are  wanting  in  the  Taconic  systeài.  '  ^'^"^' 

The  statements  of  Emmons  nu  fK;=  v.  •  ^ 
explic.  ;  he  included  in^pri^ ^3^  ^^  -«^--% 
line  schists  of  the  Green  Mountaius  excercei        ,'  ''^''^" 
micaceous  beds,  which  he  supposed  to  ll^    a  f"""'"  ""'^ 

of  the  sin^ilar  sti^ta  in  the  primarv  1^  T       "P-"'  '^'  '^^"^ 
great  mass  of  other  mcks  tK!!^'  '""'*'*"*"'  ^^*^  « 

its  turn.  unconformab^'^;:^;Jr^^^^^^^ 
and  Calcifen,us  sand- Jk  of  S^^y^^  l'^^^  -^«*- 

mak"  it  "  d?th^  "'"^  •^«^«'^•^-^  *^«  Taconic  system" 

1.  The  G^n    M      ?      '"'  ^'"P^  J"«*  mentioned,  namely 

,    ^ne  ureen    Mountain   meiss  •   2    TK^»  t        •       """"'v> 

defined  by  Emmon«  •  »«^   q    nr!'  i'  T^^cotuo   strata  as 

y  iianmons ,  and,  3.  The  Potsdam  sandstonejt  thus 

Trroceedings  of  Boston  Society  of  Nutiir.!  n:,t ^^^    .^^-     ,         

*fi«r«a»  Jonmal  of  Science  (2),  Sm  ^1       '^'  '^'^^  «.  1881.  «j 


,   *.« 


■.c^.»«'. 


252 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS. 


\tnî. 


uniting  in  one  system  the  crystalline  schists  and  the  overlying 
uncrystalline  fossiliferous  sédiments,  in  direct  opposition  to  the 
plainly  expressed  teachings  of  Emmons,  as  laid  down  in  his 
report  on  the  geology  of  the  Northern  District  of  New  York, 
and  later,  in  1846,*  in  his  memoir.on  the  Taconic  System. 

In  the  geological  survey  of  the  State  of  New  York,  the 
rocks  of  the  Champlain  division  (including  the  strata  from  the 
base  of  the  Potsdam  sandstone  to  the  summit  of  the  Loraine 
or  Hudson  Eiver  shales)  liad,  by  his  colleagues,  been  looked 
npon  as  the  lowest  of  the  palœozoic  system.  Professer  Em- 
mons, however,  was  led  to  regard  the  very  dissimilar  strata  of 
the  Taconic  hills  as  constituting  a  distinct  and  more  ancieut 
séries.  A  similar  view  had  been  held  by  Eaton,  who  placed, 
as  we  hâve  already  seen,  above  the  crystalline  schists  of  the 
Green  Mountains,  his  primary  quartzose  and  calcareous  forma- 
tions, followed  to  the  westward  by  transition  argillites  and 
sandstones,  which  latter  appear  to  bave  corresponded  to  the 
Potsdam  sandstone  of  New  York.  Emmons,  however,  gave  a 
greater  form  and  consisteney  to  this  view,  and  endeavored  to 
sustain  it  by  the  évidence  of  fossils,  as  well  as  by  structure. 
.The  Tacooic  system,  as  defined  by  him,  may  be  briefly  de- 
scribed  as  a  séries  of  uncrystalline  fossiliferous  sédiments 
reposing  uncbnformably  on  the  crystalline  schists  of  the  Green 
Mountains,  and  partly  made  up  of  their  ruins  ;  while  it  is,  at 
the  same  time,  overlaid  uuconformably-  by  the  Potsdam  and 
Calciferous  formations  of  the  Champlain  division,  and  consti- 
tutes  the  tjue  base  of  the  palœozoic  -column. 

Although  he  claimed  to  hâve  traced  this  Taconic  system 
throughout  the  Appalachian  chaiu  from  Maine  to  North  Caro- 
lina,  it  is  along  the  confines  of  Massachusetts  and  New  York 
;i^  that  its  development  was  most  minutely  studied.  He  separated 
it  intp  a  lower  and  an  upper  division,  and  estimated  its  total 
thickness  at  not  less  than  thirty  thousand  feet,  consisting,  in 
the  order  of  déposition,  of  the  foUowing  members  :  1.  Granu- 

•  Loc.  cit  p.  130,  and  Agriculture  of  New  York,  I.  53.     This  forraed  a 
part  of  the  report  by  Eramona  on  the  Agrioulture  of  New  York,  but  was 
^:r^l80  publiahed  aeparately, .— _^ 


xni.] 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHLUIa 


253 


Up  «Mrtz;  2.   Stockbridg,  Itaestone;   3.   Mâgnedan  shl»  • 
«ou,  conglom^te;  7.   Taconic  Iters    £L  t/J"  5^- 

extendéd  &;  ea.T«3    ll,^    l, T  T""  '^''  "'«'  "<""" 
them  an  e-twti  d^  'ïmîle  n     ",^';  """•  ^'"' 

pMed  armngment  of  lh«  memhsrs  Ôf  C  T  '"^ 

ann-on,  alluded  to  tbe.  a,  ••  tav^L  L^  J  X,  =^;^^"; 
Marcou,  the  stiata  were  saiVl  in  h^  u       -x         ,  ^  ^^^- 

}„•«  T      T^°®^  ''y  ii-mmons,  whose  own  view,  as  defined  in 
luB  Tacomc  System  (p.  17),t  is  that  just  .^pl^2 

•  Comptes  Rendus  de  l'Académie,  LHI.  804 

(2)!  XÏXÏ  â?'iSrrS  "L?''  iTr^'  ^'^''"^  •^-'"''^  "'  «<='«- 
the  latter  voinme  (page  136)  «n-Ln.!!,^»^^'"!,*"^''"'*''*  *'"'*  ^  ha^e.  iu 

((2).  XVIII.  261),  in^dZr.tJ^^  '?  *^  ^'^'-  ^  ^^  de  France 
heads  a  section  thts  :  '  ^2^^^";^^  "'  *'"'  ^aconic  question,  Bamnde      ' 
P^ceeds  to  show  that  ihTZZZZ^r'^'^ '''' 'V'^*^'' '^^  then 
m^^^i^^l^rZ^'i^LT^^Jj  Pnly  apparent^^y^ 


1-wv.ocua  M)  snow  that  the  renvrrjuiu i  ...        _.  -*•■«««;,  -«^a  u 


o 


^   .■•«'•>> 


2^54 


GEOQNOST  OF  THE  APPALACHIÀNS. 


[XIII. 


The  view  of  EmiiloQB,  that  there  exista  at  the  western  base 
of  the  Gieen  Motmiains  an  older  foseiliferous  séries,  underlying 
the  Potsdam,  met  with  gênerai  opposition  from  American  ge- 
ologists.  In3iay,  1844,  H.  D.  Bogers.  in  his  address  as  prési- 
dent, before  the  American  Association  Of  ôeologists,  then  met 
at  Washington,  criticised  this  view  at  length,  and  referred  to  a 
section  from  Stockbridge,  Massachusetts,  to  the  Hudson  Hiver, 
made  by  W.  B.  Bogers  and  himself,  and  by  them  laid  bèfore 
the  American  PhilosopHâcal  Society  in  January,  1841.  They 
then  maintaiu^ed  that  the  quartz-rock  of  the  Hoosic  range  was 
Potsdam,  the  Berkshire  niarble  identical  with  the  blue  lime- 
stone  of  the  Hudson  valley,  and  the  associated  micaceous  and 
talcose  schists  altered  strata  of  the  âge  of  the  slates  at  the 
base  of  the  Appalachian  'System  ;  that  is  to  say,  primai  in  the 
nomenclature  of  the  Pennsylvania  survey.  « 

In  1843  Mather  had  assert«d  the  ChampTain  âge  of  the  same 
crystalline  rocks,  and  claimed  that  the  whole  of  the  division 
was  there  represented,  including  the  Potsdam,  the  Hudson 
River  group,  and  the  intermediate  limestones.*  The  conclu- 
sion of  Mather  was  cited  with  approbation  by  Rogers,  who 
apparently  adopted  it,  and  declared  that  Hitchcock  held  a  simi- 
lar  view.  It  will  be  seen  that  thèse  geologists  thus  united  in 
one  group  the  schists  of  the  Hoosic  range  (regarded  by  Em- 
mons  as  primary)  with  those  of  the  Taconic  range,  and  referred 
both  to  the  âge  of  the  Champlain  division,  the  whole  of  which 
was  supposed  to  be  incladed  in  the  group. 

In  the  same  address  Professer  Rogers  .raised  a  very  important 
question.  Having  referred  to  tire  Potsdam  sandstone,  which 
on  I^Ake  Champlain  forms  the  base  of  the  palseozoic  system,  he 
iuquires,  "  Is  this  formation,  then,  the  lowest  limit  of  our  Ap- 
palachian masses  generally,  or  is  the  system  expanded  down- 
ward  in  other  districts  by  the  introchiction  beneath  it  of  other 
conformable  sedimentary  rocks  1  "  He  then  proceeded  to  state 
tliat  from  the  Susquehanna  River,  southwestward,  a  more  com- 
plex  séries  appears  at  the  base  of  the  lower  limestone  than  to 
the  north  of  the  Schuylkill,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  Blue 

•  Qgology  of  the  Southern  Dirtrict  of  New  Yoriç,  p.  488. 


*■' 


^.s 


rC: 


--^ 


»"•]  GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPAUCHUNS  255 

order.      This  sandstone  ia  overlaid  by  many  hundrJ^pT  f 

c^ngl.merate8,  estimated  at  10,000  feet    and T«  rï^ 
der  of  Vermnnt  ««^  (r      ^.     ^         ^"^  *^®  westem  bor- 


-^^.«.wam  Bttnastone,"»  he  would 
Btrata  ia  the  Champlain  divMJon. 


^American  Jonraal  of  Sdenc^Tl),  XLVII.  152, 168. 


^ 


IA, 


A- 


)éi.»^3\kû  ài-i. 


'•  ■  1 1 


■■t: 


256 


OEOONOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANa 


pcm. 


Thus  Tfe  see  that  at  an  earljr  period  the  rocks  of  the  Taconio 
System  were,  by  Kogera  and  Mather,  referred  to  the  Champlain 
division  of  the  New  York  system,  a  conclusion  which  haa  been 
sùstained  by  subséquent  observations.    Before  discussing  thèse, 
and  their  somewhat  involved  history,  we  may  state  two  ques- 
tions which  présent  themselves  in  connection  with.  this  solu- 
tion of  the  problem.     Fitst,  whether  the  Tacônic  system,  as 
defined  by  Emmons,  includes  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  Cham- 
plain division  ;   and,  second,  whether  it  embraces  any  strata 
older  or  newer  than  the  members  of  this  portion  of  the  New 
York  System.     With  référence  to  the  first  question  it  is  to  be 
remarked,  that  in  their  attempts  to  compare  the  Taconic  roôks 
with  those  of  the  Champlain  division  as  seen  farther  to  the 
west,  observers  were  led  by  lithological  similaritiee  to  identify 
the'upper  members  of  the  latter  with  certain  pojçtions  of  the 
Taconic.      In  fact,   the  Trentoii   limestone,   with  the  lUtica 
slates  and  the  Loraine  or  Hudson  Jlivèr  shales,  making  to- 
gether  the  upper  half  of  the  Champlain  division  (in  which 
Emmons,  moreover,  inclùded  the  overlyiug  Oneida  and  Médina 
conglomérâtes  and  sandstones),  hâve  in  New  York  an  aggregato 
thickness  of  not  lésa  than  three  or  four  thousand  feet,  and  offer 
many  lithological  resemblances  to  the  great  mass  of  sédiments 
at  the  western  base  of  the   Green  MountaiBs*,  to  which  the 
name  of  Taconio  bad  been  appUed.     It  is/curious  to  find  that 
Emmons,  in  1842,  referred  to  the  Majiina  the  Eed  sand-rock  of 
the  east  shore  of  Lake  Champlain,  since  shown  to  be  Potsdam  ; 
and,  moreover,  placed  the  Sillèry  sandstone  of  the  neighbor- 
hood  of  Québec  at  the  snmmit  of  the  Champlain  division,  as 
the  représentative  of  the  Oneida  conglomerate  ;  while  at  tiie 
same  time  he  noticed  the  great  resen^blance  which  this  sand- 
stone, with  its  adjacent  limestones,  bore  to  sunilar  rocks  on  the 
confines  of  Massachusetts,  already  rèferrea  by  him   to  the 
Taconic  system.*  *" 

'  This  view  of  Emmons  as  to  the  Québec  rocks  was  adopted 
by  Sir  William  Logan,  when,  a  few  years  afterwards,  hejpeg&n 
to  study  the  geology  of  that  région.     The  sandstone  of  Sillery 

_**  Qgotofly  °r  jheJNTorUiern  Ditl^^^  pp.  124, 12S. 


wa 

8h 

of 

gar 

son 

wes 

chu 

syst 

*         half 

Prol 

of  tl 

view 

Mesî 

older 

Chan 

maini 

those 

Th; 

fossili 

to  be 

them 

istic  o 

to  whi 

cephoUt 

giaptol 

annelid 

of  his 

identicj 

fossil  o 

ferred  1 

l^he  prii 

lyingbe 

thepWflE 

cal  horû 

nal  of  Steie 
=;^.4  Amad 


'"^^ 


Pi-'" 


)- 


Xlll.] 


p 


0«OONOSY  OF.THE  APPALACHUN8. 


257 


was   described   bv  him   o= 

Shawangunk  4^^"  S^'?  *!  ''^  ^"^^^^  «^ 
of  the  vicinity,  which  wm^  !„  '       ^^  ^^n^estonea  and  shales 

«on  Rivet  formations  *    Bv  fnii  ù*^°'  ^"'^'  "^^  Hud- 

syatem,  whi.h  Sir  Wiljfam  ^^  th^  .  ."T*""/^  ^'^^  ^*«««'« 
half  of  the  Champlain  d^ J^  t.  1  !"  ''^''  *"  ''»«  "PP«r 
Professor  AdamsYn  847 1  I'  ^  "^'^^  ^°  ^''"«^ 
of  the  Appalachians  in  thia  .^gioTht  h':  ""^'^'^^  ''^^ 
vieir  of  Emmonfl,  and  mainl^n!?'.,'.  '''  ''J"*'*«'^  ^^^ 

older  rocks,  were  but   IhTT^'  *^^'  '^«^«ad  «^  bein^'  ^ 

ChamplaindiWsLinanXLr'  hT"  '"""^"^^  «^  ^^f 
«.aintained  during  slve^^ul.         n^"'  *  ^'«^  "^«^^  ^ 
those  connebted  wUrrleE  7        ''  *'^  P'^'^^-^ions  of 
This  conclusion  «Vf   «"^'^S^^^l  «"rvey  of  Canada. 

Wiferori^l  Ou^^^^  ^^^««  «^  '^^  -alte^d 
to  beconWd  VtheSne^'^^'r**^'  -««  «upp-ed 
them  in  Ve^monf  Mr  Eml  f  ".T^'^  ^"^«^^^  ^^nd  in 
-tic  of  the  upper  part  oflheT  ^  ^"*'''^^'  ^  «^«^e- 

g^ptoKtes,  fucoids,  and  wtt  ir^  '^«^^^^  ^7  ^im  being 
annelids.  fn  W  P^ow'  /''"  "PP«^»"y  the  marks  of 
of-  his  PalLtolo^.  diw  r^^^'  "^  *^«  fi"*  -«l"«»e 
ideiticaY  with  T^nArT^r  ,^"  ^^^^  °^  ^«"«"^  to  be 

fened  by  him  to  the  lus  0^!,  ^'  EUiptocephalus  was  re. 
iÇhe  primordial  fauna  SZ^'u''"''  ^""^'^  ^  ^W  to 
"ying  beneath  the  orthl^^^  b;"^"  ''  "  '^^'^'^  ^"  «^*- 

the  pkteo«,ie  séries    A^h^t  ^T"''  '"**  "^*^  ^'^^  ^  «f 

--^noftheoien::S;:a::::„^---,^^^ 


MbiS|tîS^^,^^^.JjL^    4    % 


I  .\-^'. 


^^ 


• 


258 


GEOGÎîOSY  OF„THE  APPALACHIANS. 


(XIU. 


A 


this  aùthor  in  his  chuiaio  work,  l>thcea  Suecica,  publiahed  in 
1837,  repreaents,  by  some  unes;plained  error,  theae  slates  as 
overlying  the  orthoceratite  limestone,  which  is  the  equivolont 
of  the  Trenton  limestone  of  the  Champlain  division.  Hence, 
as  Mr.  Barrande  has  remarked,  HaU  was  ju«tified  by  the  au- 
thorityof  Hiainger's.published  work  in  assigning  to  the  Olenus 

-slates  of  Venaont  a  position  above  that  limestone,  and  in  placing 
them,  as  he  then  did,  on  the  horizon  of  the  Htidson  River  or 
Loiame  shalék.  The  double  évidence  atforded  by  thèse  two 
f  jssil  forms  in  the  rocks  of  Vermoirt  served  to  conflrm  Sir 
William  Logan  in  pfecing  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Champlain 
division  the  rocks  which  he  regarded  as  their  stratigraphical 
équivalents  near  Québec  ;  ând  which,  as  we  hâve  seen,  had 
some  ykirs  before  been  by  EmmoMjiimself  assigned  to  thff 
same  horizon.  The  remarkable  ,^jP^und  graptolites  which 
occûr  in  the  shales  of  Pointe  Levis,  opposit*  Québec,  were 
described  by  Professor  James  Hall  in  the  report  of  the  Geo- 
logical  Survey  of  Canada  for  1857,  and  were  then  referred  to 
the  Hudson  River  group  ;  nor  was  it  until  August,  1860,  .that 
Mr.  Billings  depçribed  from  tlie  limestones  of  this  same  séries 
at  Pointe  Levis  a  number  of  trilobites,  among  which,  were  sev- 

{^1  species  of  Agnostus,  Bikelocephalus,  Bathyurus;  etc.,  coiw^ 
%tuting  a  fauMIliwhose  geological  horizon  he  decided  to  be  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  Champlain  division. 

Just  previous  to  this  time,  in  t^report  of  the  Reg 
the  University  of  New  York  f6r^59,  Professor  " 
described  and  figured  by  the  name  of  Olenus  two 
trilobites  from  the  slates  of  Georgia,  Vermont,  which  Emmons 
Ka^  Miçiorigly  referred  to  the  genus,  Paradoxides.  They  were  at 
^nÉj^Qognized  by  Barrande,  who  called  attention  to  their 
l^rM|jjLll^A|yii^|^r.  and  thus  led  to  a  knowledge  of  their  true 
Bt^wHP^  JiSP^^  '"^  ^  ^^^  détection  of  the  singular 
err^l^ElpPs  booltjjready  poticed,  by  which  American 
■geol^^^pheen  misl^l^  "ïhey  hâve  sitice  beeh  separated 
from  dienSi  and   by  Professor  Hall  referred  to  a  new  and 

_^ »-For  the  correspondenée  on  thJB  matter 'betwecn  Barrande,  L^^,  and 

Hall,  sM^nerioan  Journal  of  Science  (2),  XXXI.  2T0-:226. 


"iM 


^» 


/ 


XilLJ 


08Y  OF  THÉ!  APPAMCHIANa 


259 


^lUff,  which  he  lias  named  OJeneUua,  and  which 
,  M  belongmg  to  the  horizon  of  tlie  Potsdam 
to  which  we  ahall  preaently  advèrt.   ^ 
atudies  of  the  foMiliferoiw  roclu  ne^y  Québec  showed 
^e  existence  of  a  maaa  of  sédiments  estimated  at  about  1  20a 
feet,  holding  a  numeroua  fauna,  and  corresponding  to  a  Jreat 
développent  ofstrata  about  thç  âge  of  ^ho  Cal5ferousTd 
Chazy  formations,  or.  mora  exactly,  to  a  formation  occupying  « 
position  between  thesj  two,  and^constituting,as  it  we»,  bL 
of  passage  between  tUm,     W  this  new  formation  weré  in- 
cluded   the  graptoHtes  alr«ady -described   by  Hall,  and  the 
numerx,u8^ctustacea  and  brachiopoda  described  by  BilUngs,  aU 
of  wiuch  belong  to  the  Levis  8lat««  and  limestones.     To  thèse 
;;1«  Jt^'n"^^  '""^''  «••■William  Logan  then  gave  the 
n*me  of  the  Québec  group,  including.  besides  the  fossiliferous 
Levis  formation,  a  great  masa  of  overlying  slates,  sandstones, 
and  magnesian  hme8tone8,.hîtheFto  without  fossib,  which  hâve 
been  «amed  the  Lauzon  rocks,  and  the  Sillery  sandstones  and 
shales  which  he  supposed  to  for^^he  summit  of  the  group 
and  which  had  aflFord^  only  an  Obolella  and  two  «pecies  of 
ijngula  ;     the  volume  of  the  whole  group  being  about  7,000 

The  paleontolôgical  évidence  thus  obtained  by  Billings  ana 
by  Hall,  both  from  near  Québec  and  in  Vermont,  led  to  the 
conclu^i^  that  thé  stiata  of  thèse  régions,  so  much  resembling 
pie  upper  members  of  the  Champlain  division,  were  really  a 
great  development,  in  a  modified  form,  of  soœeNof  its  lower  poi- 
tions.    Their  apparent  stmtigraphical  relations  were  explained 
py  Logan  by  the  supposition  of  "  an  overtumed  anticlinal  fold, 
with  a  crack  and  a  gfeat  dislocation  runniug  along  the  summit' 
by  which  the  Québec  group  is  brought  to  overlie  Mie  Hudson 
River  group.     Sometime»  it  may  overlie  the  overtumed  Utica 
^  formation,  and  in  Vermont  pomts  of  the  overtumed  Trenton 
appear  occasionaUy  to  émerge  from  beneath  the  overlap."    Ha. 
at  the  same  time,  declared  that  '"from  the  physical  structure 
alone,  no  person  vrould  suspect  the  hnêk  that  muât  exist  Jn 


•.See  BUIlngg,  Paleoioic  Fonib  of  Cwaadt,  p. 


r'- 


S     . 


i»^i^kri  jfcA^"  ■i.&'j 


260 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS. 


[XIII. 


y 


the  neîghborhood  of  Québec,  and,  without  the  évidence  of 
fossils,  every  one  would  be  authorized  to  deny  it."  * 

Th©  rocks  from  western  Vermont,  which  had  furnished  to 
Hall  the  species  of  Olenellus,  bave  long  been  known  as  the 
Red  aand-Tock,  and,  as  we  bave  seen,  were  by  Emmons,  in  1842, 
referred  to  the  âge  of  the  Médina  sandstone,  —  a  view  which 
the  late  Professer  Adams  still  maintained  as  late  as  1847.t  In 
the  mean  time  Emmons  had,  in  1855,  declared  tbis  rock  to 
represent  the  Calciferous  and  Potsdam  fonnations,  the  brown 
sandstones  di  Burlington  and  Charlotte,  Vermoilt,  being  re- 
ferred to  the  lattér.J  This  conclusion  was  confirmed  by 
Billings,  who,  in  1861,  after  visiting  the  région  and  exâmin- 
ing  the  organic  remains  of  the  Red  sand-rock,  assigned  to  it  a 
position  near  the  horizon  of  the  Potsdam.  §  Certain  trilobites 
found  in  this  Red  sand-rock  by  Adams,  in  1847,  were  by  Hall 
recognized  as  belonging  to  the  European  genus  Conocephaliu 
(=  Conocephalites  and  Conocoryphe),  whose  geological  horizon 
was  theji  undetermined.||  The  formation  in  question  consists 
in  great  part  of  a  red  or  mottled  graliular  dolomite,  associated 
with  beds  of  fucoidal  sandstone,  conglomerateS^  and  slates. 
Thèse  rocks  were  carefully  examined  by  Logan  in  Swanton, 
Vermont,  where,  according  to  him,  they  hâve  a  thickijess  of 
2,200  feet,  and  iuclude  toward  their  base  a  mass  of  dark- 
colored  shales  holding  Olenellus  with  Conocephalites,  Obolella, 
etc.  ;  Conocephalites  Tencer,  Billings,  being  common  to  tho 
shales  and  the  red  sandy  beds.ir  Many  o^  thèse  fossils  are 
also  found  at  Troy  and  at  Bald  Mountain,  New  York,  where 
they  accompany  the  Atops  of  Emmons,  now  recognized  by 
Billings  as  a  species  of  Conocephalites. 


•'^  , 


♦  Lôgan'8  letter  to  Banunde,  American  Joarnol  of  Science  (2),  XXXI.  218. 
The  trne  date  of  this  letter  waa  December  31, 1860,  but,  by  a  misprint,  it  is 
made  1831. 

t  Adams,  American  Journal  of  Science  (2),  V.  108. 

X  Emmons,  American  Geology,  II.  128.  ** 

§  American  Journal  of  Science  (2),  XXXII.  232. 

H  Ibid.  (2),  XXXIII.  374. 

i  Geology  of  Canada,  1863,  p.  281  ;  American  Journal  of  Science  (2), 

-jtLVLaat 


'■.^iii)&i', 


XIII.]  GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHUNS.  ,2G1 

the  Appalachian  région.     On  the  south  dde  of  the  S  t2 
rencebelow  Québec  a  great  thickness  of  U.lne^ll^r 

^ed  by  Bxllings  as,  m  part  at  least,  of  the  PoSdam  fonnt 
tion;  while  ontha  coast  of  Labrador  and  in  northem  C 
foundland,  the  ^r^  formation,  characterized  hy  the  earfo^î 

accordmg  to  l^un.y,  a  thickness  of  3,000  feet'or  moT  Along 

ppe^rt^e'^'f '^^  t  ^'*"'  ''  ^  ^-^^^  bori^ntaTand 
appears  to  be  conformably  overlaid  by  about  4,000  feet  of 

fosszhferous  stmta  i^presenting  the  Caiciferous  s^^dlcl  ani 
the  suceeeding  Levis  formation.  ^aTock  and 

Mr.  Billings  has  de«cribed  a  section  from  the  Laurentian  of 
Crown  Point,  New  York,  to  Comw^,  Vermont,  W  whLht 
appears  hat  to  the  eastward  of  a  dislocation  which  b  Jngs  np 
the  Potsdam  to  ov^rlie  the  higher  members  of  the  ChamplZ 
division,  the  Potsdam  is  itself  overlaid,  at  a  small  anl  bH 
^t  mass  of  hmestones  representing  the  Calciferous,  aVi  hlv- 
ng  at  the  summit  some  of  fhe  characteristic  fossûs  of  the 

aWv  thl  P.      T''"'t  ^*^  '^'*°*^"  ^«««^  («"^bracing  prob- 
ably  the  Chazy  division),  while  to  the  east  of  this  the  Lev^ 

oTservêd  in  th.T         "^-  ^''*  '''  augmentation  in  volume 
observed  in  the  lower  members  of  the  Champlain  («vision  in 

lest  oTiiTb'T-  ^^.^""^  ^  '^«  ^-^^^^  -h^ch  t:  ti: 

west  of  Lake  Champlain  is  represented,  the  Chazy  included 
by  not  more  than  SOOieet  of  limestone.  The  PotsLm  i„  the 
latter  région,  consists  of  from  500  to  700  feet  of  ^dstone 

feeuî'       "^'P^^^*^^  ''''  ^*°^^«"^  -<1  overlaid  by  300 
feetof  n^agnesian  limestone,  the  so^Ued  Calciferous  sand  rxx^k 

Missouri,  and  Texas  are  represented  by  from  800  to  1  300  feet  of 
aandstones  and  magnesian  limestones^  while  in  tl  BUck  RiS, 
*T.  8.  jSnnt  on  the  Owlc 


"~T2),  XLVL  227, 


t,  Americm  Jonnul  ôf  ScJenoe 


,  ,.<uMaijMt!v,w£îlvuA^>,-  iss^u  ' 


,,A,.„.i.^ 


si 


-V.^: 


262 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS. 


[XIIL 


of  Nebraska,  accoiding  to  H%den,  the  only  représentative  of 
thèse  lower  fonuations  is  about  one  hundred  feet  of  sandstone 
holding  Fotsdam  fossils.* 

In  striking  contrast  to  this,  it  bas  been  shown  that  along  the 
Appalachian  range  irom  [N^ewfoundland  to  Tennessee  thèse 
lower  formations  are  represented  by  from  8,000  to  15,000  feet 
of  fossiliferous  sédiments.  It  bas  been  suggested  by  Logan 
that  thèse  widely  differing  conditions  represent  deep-sea  accu- 
mulations on  the  one  hand,  and  the  deposits  frôm  a  shallow 
sea  which  çovered  a  submerged  continental  plateau  on  the 
other  ;  the  sédiments  in  the  two  areas  being  characterized  by  a 
similar  fauna,  though  differing  greatly  in  lithological  characters 
and  in  thickness.  To  this  we  may  add,  that  the  continental 
area,  being  probably  submerged  and  elevated  at  intervais,  be- 
came  overlaid  with  beds  which  represent  only  in  a  partial  and 
imperfect  manner  the  great  succession  of  strata  which  were 
being  accumulated  in  the  adjacent  océan,  f 

In  a  paper  which  I  hope  to  présent  to  the  geological  section 
during  the  présent  meeting  of  the  Association,  it  will  be  shown, 
from  a  study  of  the  rocks  of  the  Ottawa  basin,  that  the  typical 
Champlain  division  not  only  présents  important  paleontological 
breaks,  but  évidences  of  stratigraphical  discordance  at  more 

•  American  Journal  of  Science  (2),  XXV.  439;  XXXI.  234.  [Later  obser- 
vations show  great  variations  in  the  thickneas  of  thèse  lower  rocks  in  the  West. 
In  the  Walisatch  Monntains  are  found,  according  to  Bradley,  from  1,500  to 
2,000  feet  of  sandstones  and  conglomérâtes,  regarded  as  Fotsdam,  overlaid  by 
3,000  feet  of  magnesian  limestones  and  shales,  holding  fossils  of  the  Levis, 
and,  towards  the  snmmit,  of  Niagara  and  probably  of  Lower  HeMerberg 
âge  ;  the  whole  followed  by  2,000  feet  of  Devonian  sandstones  and  3,000 
feet  of  Carboniferous  limestones.  In  the  Teton  Mountains,  however,  accortl- 
ing  to  the  snme  observer,  this  great  thickness  of  Fotsdam  and  Levis  rotks  is 
represented  by  only  700  feet  of  quartzites  and  limestones,  overlaid  by  about 
600  feet  of  magnesian  limestones,  probably  of  Niagara  âge,  followed  by  2,000 
feet  of  Carboniferous  limestones.  In  the  Wind  River  Mountains,  in  western 
Wyoming,  Frofessor  Comstock  bas  described  a  remarkable  séries,  inclnding 
Fotsdam  and  Levis,  followed  by  strata  of  Oriskany  âge,  Carboniferous  lime- 
stones, Triassic,  Jarassic,  and  Cretaceous  rocks,  ail  apparently  conformable, 
and  resting  at  an  angle  of  abont  20°  on  the  orystalline  Eozoic  rocks.  Be- 
mains  of  the  fauna  of  the  Trenton  period  (Upper  Cambrian)  hâve  moreover 
very  rwcently  been  made  known  to  uafh>ni  the  West.] 


t  Ibid.  ^2),  XLVI.  225. 


^  >Lt^  ÀiH'' ^^■'   A»-\^j,jMn^i^i.t  -t'.^j'.  ..^i^t''' ^  *>;^3.  i'j^« -ti  ;^f^i)»i4.  ^^•(liuè^k'^,'*  "^  ^  ^^iit^^Jit^K  Ms^J&^-îl 


-■An  ^A.J^d i-^À  «, 


Xin.J  GEOGNOSy  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS.  263 

than  one  hori«>n  over  the  continental  area,  which,  as  the  resuit 
of  widely  spread  movements,  mighLbe  suppdSed  to  be  r^pm- 
sfented  m  the  Appalachian  région.*  In  the  latter  Logan  has 
already  observed  that  the  absence  of  aU  but  the  highit  beds 
of  the  Leyis  along  the  eastern  limit  of  the  Potsdam,  near 
Swanton^  Vennont  (whUe  the  whole  tinckness  of  them  ap- 
pearsa  bttle  farther  westward),  makea  it  probable  that  there 
^  a  want  of  conformity  bet^reen  the  two,  and  I  hâve  in 

'  •%,  .r^T*!''''"^^'*'*  'iPO'»  tl^e  entire  a.wence,  in  this 
J^  '^locahty,  of  the  Calciferous,  which  ia  met  with  a  little  farther 
flouth  in  the  section  just  mentioned,  as  anoth.*  évidence  of 
the  same  unconformity.*  There  are  also,  I  think.  reasons 
for  suspectin^  another  stratigraphical  break  at  the  "summit 
ot  the  Québec  group,t  in  which  case  -^any  problems  in 
the  geological  structure  of  this  région  ^nll  be  much  sim- 
plified. 

^      Itshould  be  reinembered  that  the  conditions  of  déposition 
in  some  areas  hâve  bean  such  that  acci  mulations  of  strata,  coiu 
responding  to  long  géologie  periods,  and  elsewhete  marked  by    . 
stratigraphical  breaks,  are  arranged  in  conformable  superposi- 7 
tion;  and  moreover  that  movenients'of  élévation  and  depres-  / 
sion  hâve  even  caused  great  paleontological  breaks,  which  over/ 
considérable  areas  a«  not,marked  by  any  apparent  discordance. 
Thus  the  remrkable  bre^  in  thfe  feuna  between  the  Calcife^ 
ous  and  theCha^i«  not  accompanied  by  any  noticeable  dis- 
cordance  m  the  Ottawa  basin;  and  in  x\ebraska,  according  to 
Hayden,  the  Potsdam,  Carboniferous,  Jurassic.  and  Cretaceous 
formations  are  ail  represented  in  about  1,200  feet  of  conforma- 
ble  strata.  J  .  In  Sweden  the  whole  séries  from  the  base  of  the 
Cambnan  to  the  summit  of  the  «ilurian  appears  as  a  conform- 
able séquence,  whUe  in  North  Wales.  although  there  is  no  ap- 
parent  discordance  from  the  base  of  the  Cambrian  to  the  sum^ 
mit  of  the  Lingula  flagi,  stratigraphical  breaks,  according  to 
Kamsay,  probably  occur  both  at  the  base   and  the  summit 

•  American  Journal  of  Science  (2),  XL VI.  225 

t  See,  for  the  évidence  of  thi«,  Eswy  XV.,  Fart  Thini. 


-^American  Jonnnl  of  Science  (2),  XXV.  4m7 


ffmy-. 


264 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THË  APPALACHIANS. 


[XIII. 


of  the  Tremadoc  slates,*  wliich  are  considered  équivalent  to 
the  Levis  formation. 

'  We  hâve  been  that,  accoiding  to  Logan,  a  dislocation  a  little 
to  the  north  of  Lake  Champkin  causes  the  Québec  group  to 
oVerlie  the  higher  members  of  the  Champlain  division.  The 
same  upli|t,  according  to  him,  brings  up,  fÎEirther  south,  the 
Red  sand-rock  of  Vertnont,  which  to  the  west  of  the  disloca- 
tion rests  upon  the  uptui-ned'  and  inverted  strata  of  varions 
formations  from  the  Calciferous  sand-rock  to  the  Utica  and 
Hudson  Hiver  shales.  Thèse  latter,  according  to  him,  are  seen 
to  pass  for  consideiïible  distances  beneath  nearly  horizontal 
layers  of  the  Eed  sand-rock,  the  Utica  slate,  in  one  case,  hold- 
ing its  characteristio  fossil,  Triarihrus  Beckii.  This  relation, 
whiofa  is  weU  shown  in  a  section  at  St.  Albans,  figurod  by 
Hitchcock,t  was  looked  upon  by  Emmons  and  by  Adams  as 
évidence  that  the  Eed  sand-rock  was  the  représentative  of  the 
Médina  sandstone  of  the  New  York  system.  When,  however, 
the  former  had  recognized  the  Potsdam  âge  pf  the  sand-rock, 
with  its  Olenellus,  which  he  supposed  to  be  Paradoxides,  this 
condition  of  things  was  conceived  to  be  an  évidence  of  the 
existence  beneath  the  Potsdam  of  an  older  and  unconformable 
fosâiliferous  séries  aiready  mentioned. 

The  objections  made  by  Emmons  to  Rogers's  view  of  the 
Champlain  âge  of  the  Taconic  rocks  were  threefold  :  first,  the 
great  différences  iu  lithological  characterS;  succession,  and  thick- 
ness  between  thèse  and  the  rocks  of  the  Champlain  division 
as  previously  known  in  New  York  ;  second,  the  supposed  un- 
conformable infraposition  of  a  fossiliferous  séries  to  the  Pots- 
dam ;  and,  third,  the  distinct  fauna  which  the  Taconic  rocks 
were  supposed  to  contain.  The  first  ôf  thèse  is  met  by  the 
fact,  now  established,  that,  in  the  Appalachian  région,  the  Cham- 
plain division  is  représentée!  by  rocks  having,  with  the  same 
organic  remains,  very  différent  lithological  characters,  and  a 
thickness  tenfold  greKter  than  in  the  typical  Champlain  ,region 
of  northem  New  York.    The  second  objection  has  alieady 

•  Qnar.  Geol.  Joarnal,  XIX.  p.  86. 
=t  3«otag]rof  Vennout,  p.  874 - -  *  


i^iié^Éi^IkiiAâdà^ 


xm.] 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS. 


265 


been  answered  by  showing  that  the  rocks  which,  as  in  the  St 

Btmta  belongxng  to  the  upper  part  of  the  division,  and  conlh 
a  chamctenst^c  fossil  of  the  Utica  slate.     As  to  th    thL  pofn 
it  has  also  been  met,  so  far  as  regards  the  Atops  and  FI  W'' 
ceph^us,  by  showing  thèse  two  |enera  to  Sg  i^'X- 

t  findThtl  IZ.^TV'^''''  ^°*^  "^«  lacont  fauna, 
^^^^^^ 

accord^ng  to  the  déterminations  of  Professor  HalTap  de^S 

cZr  ^and  rr  ^T'^^:-'  "^p'^-^*^«'  ^-^^^^^> 

unaetetes,  and  Stictopora.*  Such  a  fauna  would  lead  to  th« 
conclusion  that  thèse  limestones,  instead  of  being  oTder  Vere 
reaUy  newer  than  the  OleneUus  beds,  and  that  Lrapparn^ 
order  of  succession  was,  contrary  to  the  suppositilT^ 

hylltr  "t.  "^'^  ^^"^'"«'«"  -««  «*^"'-*her  confirma 
by  the  évidence  obtamed  in  1868  by  Mr.  BiUings,  who  found 
m  that  région  a  great  number  of  chai^cteristic  T^ecies  of  the 
W  fonnahon,  many  of  them  in  beds  immediately  above  or 
beow  the  white  marbles,t  which  latter,  f«,m  the  i^cent  obser 
vations  of  the  Rev.  Augustua  Wing,  in  the  vicinity  of  Rutla^d 
Vermont,  would  seem  to  be  among  the  upper  beds  of  the  Pots^ 

Îhl  /  ."î  '"^  ^*^^  formations,  the  gr^ater  number  of 
them,  denved  from  beds  supposed  to  be  low  down  in  the  Sys- 
tem, are  shown  to  be  of  the  âge  of  the  Levis  formation.    There 

inn.!  K  .««^unentary  rocks  of  the  western  base  of  th^ 
ancient  than  those  of  the  Champlain  division,^  to  which,  from 

^  J  G«,logy  of  Vermont,  419  ;  and  Americn  Journal  of  Science  (2),  XXXIII. 
+  American  Jonmal  of  Science  (2),  XLVI.  227 


12 


l..- 


266 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS. 


[XHL 


their  organic  remains,  the  .fossiliferous  Tacouic  rocks  are  sliown 
to  belbng. 

Mr.  Billings  has,  it  ia  tarue,  (îistinguished  provisionally  what 
he  has  designated  an  upp»  aud  a  lower  division  of  the  Pots- 
dam,  and  has  referred,tô  the  latter  the  Bed  sand-rock  with  the 
Olenellus  slates  of  Yermont,  together  with  beds  holding  similar. 
fossils  at  Troy,  New  York,  and  along  the  Strait  of  Ëellisle  in 
Labrador  and  Newfoundlaud  ;  the  upper  division  of  the  Pots- 
dam  being  represented  by  the  basai  sandstones  of  the  Ottawa 
basin  and  of  the  Mississippi  vàlley.*  In  the  présent  state  of 
our  knowledge  of  the  local  variations  in  sédiments  and  in  their 
fauna  dépendent  on  depth,  température,  and  océan  currents, 
Billings,  however,  conceives  that  it'would  beprematuïe  to  assert 
that  thèse  two  types  of  ^he  Potsdam  do  not  represent  syn- 
chronous  deposits. 

The  base  of  the  Champlain  division,  as  Mown  in  the  Pots- 
dam formation  of  New  York,  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  and 
the  Appalachian  belt,  does  not,  however,  represent  the  base  of 
the  palœozoic  serieâ  in  Europe.  The  Alum  slates  in  Sweden 
are  diyided  into  two  parts,  an  upper  or  Olenus  zone,  and  a 
lower  or  Conocoryphe  zone,  as  distinguisbed  by  Angelin.  Thé 
latter  is  characterized  by  the  genus  Paradoxides,  which  also 
occupies  a  lower  division  in  the  primordial  palseozoic  rocks  of 
Bohemia  (Barrande's  stage  C),  the  greater  part  of  which  are 
regarded  as  the  équivalent  of  the  Olenus  zone  of  Sweden  and- 
the  Potsdam  of  North  America.  The  Lingula  flags  of  iWales 
belong  to  the  same  horizon,  and  it  is  àt  their  base,  in  strata 
once  referred  to  the  Lower  J^ingula  flags,  that  the  Paradoxides 
is  met  with.  Thèse  strata,  for  which  Hick»'knd  Salter,  in 
1865,  proposed  the  name  of  the  Menevian  group,  are  regarded 
as  corresponding  to  the  lower  division  of  the  Alum  slates,  and, 
like  it,  contain  a  fauna  not  yet  recognized  in  the  basai  rocks  of 
the  llew  York  System.  [Beneath  the  Menevian  lie  the  Llan- 
befis  and  Harlech  r.icks  (the  Lougmynd),  which  eonstitute  the 
Lower  Cambrian  of  Sedgwick  ;  wfiile  above  it  are  the  great 
mass  of  the  Lingula  flags  and  the  Tremadoc  rocks,  his  Middle 

_   '       JLl—JLRBport GeoL M Caaadk,  1S63 - a«rp.28(L  .=_ 


P- 


'thÀl  !4ilk_.;f',Sh>*»'A<jeiS.>lf«(lt*t.vsiHJit'AÎ-i4.«/ Vi".  iW»,i«i|'4e "««vS^ëîijfe^îf  A\-  "** 


••■     V  '■ 


p- 


^I"]  GEOONOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS.  267 

Cambrian.     To   thèse  aucceed  th^  Bala  or  Upper  Camhw 
the    équivalent    «f  ih^    ti     j  m  ^ppet  Uambnan, 

of  the  reWon,  „f  Ca-nbriTand  ffl™^  ttel^"^"" 

-w'i^^^h^-^rr^iff^-™ 

lent  of  the  LlandeL  Lw  W^^Z  Lf  Wv  r^"^^' 
these  lower  rocks  in  ^^J    '^.'''f-  .  ^he  total  thickness  of 

of  the  LinguTa  «1^1  M  "'  -^^  '^"  represent^tWes 

«ÎSMandC^nlT  T""  '"°°°"''  °'"'"'"'  *»  rfsl>' 

dow„„::î'Jl'^^8:„"™f  ■;;„•»  »''-■;;;»->'  ^''°™'  -'=»■''"« 

base  «r  .(~i.         I^  j  ""  Menemn  lo  the  rerr 

b^  ot^  reg.^  „  ,^,  rep^eentativee  of  the  H  Jech 

««»-».  ^<.^ia.  „„«,  *  the  Zaat  Z^^-^^^Z  v;Z 


^^'^^■'/^•^s^,^^:^''- 


69;  also 


268 


GEOGNOST  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS. 


[XIII. 


Cambrian,  as  defined  by  Sedgwick,  is  represented  in  North 
America  by  the  upper  portion  of  the  Champlain  division  of 
New  York,  from  the  top  of  the  Chazy,  w^e  the  Middle  and 
Lower  Cambrian  bave  their  équivalente  in  the  Québec  group, 
the  Chazy,  Calciferous,  aUd  Fotsdam,  and  in  the  strata  holding 
Paradoxides  and  other  primordial  forms  in  Massachusetts,  ¥ew 
•Brunswick,  and  Newfoundland.  The  précise  relation  of  thèse 
to  the  Potsdam  formation  of  New  York  is  yet  to  'be  deter- 
mined,  as  well  as  the  question  whether  there  exists  in  the 
Appalachians  any  palsBOzoic  rocks  belonging  to  a  lower  horizon 
than  the  Fotsdam.  For  a  further  discussion  of  thèse  questions . 
tho  reader  is  referred  t<i  Essay  XV.  in  the  présent  volume.] 

In  May,  L861,  I  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  beds  of 
quartzose  conglomérate  at  the  base  of  the  Fotsdam  in  Hem- 
mingford,  near  the  outlet  of  Lake  Champlain,  on  its  western 
side,  contain  fragments  of  green  and  black  slates,  "  showing  the 
existence  of  argillaceous  slates  before  the  déposition  of  the 
Potsdam  sandstohe."  *  The  moie  ancient  strata,  which  fur- 
nished  thèse  slatj  fragments  to  the  Potsdam  conglomérate, 
hâve  perhaps-^b^n  destroyed,  or  are  concealed,  but  they  or 
their  équivalents  may  yet  be  discovered  in  some  part  of  the 
great  Appalachian  région.  They  should  not,  however,  be 
called  Taconic,  but  receive  the  prior  désignation  of  Cambrian, 
unless,  indeed,  it  shall  appear  that  the  source  of  thèse  slate 
fragments  was  the  more  argillaceous  beds  of  the  still  older 
Huronian  schists.  Emmons  regarded  his  Taconic  system  as 
the  équivalent  of  the  Lower  (and  Middle)  Cambrian  of  Sedg- 
wick ;  but  when,  in  1842,  Murchison  announced  that  the  name 
of  Cambrian  had  ceased  to  hâve  any  zoological  significance, 
being  identical  with  Lower  Silurian,t  Emmons,  conceiving,  as 
he  tells  us,  that  ail  Cambrian  rocks  were  not  Silurian,  instead 
of  maintaining  Sedgwick's  name  which,  with  the  progress  of 
paleontological  study,  is  assuming  a  great  zoological  importance, 
devised  the  name  of  Taconic,  as  synonymous  with  the  Lower 
(and  Middle)  Cambrian  of  Sedgwick.^ 

*  American  Joarnal  of  Science  (2),  XXXf.  404. 
t  Proc.  Geol.  Soc.  London,  III.  642. 


î  Emmons,  GeoL  N.  District  ôf  New  Tori,  162  ;  ind  Agrid.  of  New  Yoi¥, 
1.49. 


^« 


kir 


'K^i',-'-'-^,  ■  r-'i'v 


^«•1  GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS.  269 

The  crystalline  stiata  towhich  the  mme  of  the  Huronian 
s^nes  bas  been  given  by  the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada  h"^ 
^metnx.^beencaUedCan.brian  W  their  Jsemblance  to  1 

down  to  their  base,  are,  however,  uncrystaUine  sédiments  Tnd  ' 

as  pointed  ont  bv  Dr  Bieabv  in  l  «rs  »  !.  !  ^^™®"'^'  *»"> 

with  tb«  TTnJ^  u  7?  1863,*  are  not  to be  confounded 

■      '^^''^  tt«  Huronian,  which  he  rega«ied  as  équivalent  to  the 

Urs^^./eroT  primitive  schists,  which  in  that  country  r^t  un 

acteld   t  r>     "  "^^«""^diate  séries  in  Norway  is  char- 

^hisT  Jh  d     -^   T'^"'"''   '"^"*^*''   *°d    hornblendic 
r«nr^i'i  "i""'  ''^"*«'  *"^    dark-colored  serpentines 

.    SLctl    tb     rrï*-  Z''  '*"  «^ine^Iogical  and  litholo^cS 
2        "'  !?'   UiBchiefer  corresponds  with   what  we  Le 

Nomay,  divided  mto  a  |ower  or  quartzose  division,  matked  by 
apredomanance  of  quartzites,  conglomérâtes  and  more  mSsive 
^ks,  and  an  upper  and  more  schistose  division.     MacfeZe 

of  1  G^eTr  f -^  «;P«"-  -d  the  ciystelline  stratt 
opiitn  t^t  ^rf  .T'  "^  '''"^^'  '"^  ^«^2,  declared  bis 
wCn  utb  f  +  ..  "^  ^''^  représentatives  of  the  Nor- 
«IS  ^r  ''^.  *^"«  anticipating,  from  his  comparative 
Btudies,  the  conclusions  of  Bigsby.  P'u^wvo 

The  crystalline  rocks  of  Anglesea  and  the  adjacent  part  of 
B^r;"'/'"'  ^^^  ^n  aescribed  and  m^^  ^  ^e 
Bnsh  Geological  Survey  as  altered  Cambn'an,  T  diLtly 
overlaid  by  strata  of  th^  Llandeilo  or  Upper  Cambrian  cU^on 
S'^CntS?  ^^^^"*«^  -^  HuZn  Biver  forlrn^.' 
that  he  épeaks  of  the  lower  "rocks  as  "prt)bably  Cambrian," 

*  ^"-  J^or.  Oeol.  Soc.,  XIX.  86. 

==7T  ttefadianîratnraîiBt,  VIÏ.  126.  '         ^  — " 


âiife*i^ifL.  ^&  itai   r*>-V  -«^.A.j*,* 


i  ^1^  f£.i<l-^  " 


^'Lv     kiJjMï 


270 


OEOONOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIAN8. 


[XIIL 


and  States  as  a  reason  for  that  opinion,  that  thpy  are  connected 
by  certain  beds  of  intennediate  lithologiçal  charactere  with 
Btrata  of  undoubted  Cambrian  âge.*  ïhese.  however,  as^  he 
admits,  présent  great  local  variations,  and,  after  carefully  scan- 
ning  tiie  whôle  of  the  évidence  adduced,  I  am  inclined  to  sée 
in  it  nothing  more  tlian  the  existence,  in  this  region,  of  Cam- 
brian strata  made  up  from  the  ruins  from  the  great  mass  of 
pre-Cambrian  scbists,  which  are  the  crystalline  rocks  of  Angle- 
sea.  Such  a  pheuomenon  is  repeated  in  numerous  instances  in 
our  îforth  American  rocks,  and  is  the  true  explanation  of  many 
supposed  examples  of  passage  from  crystalUne  scbists  to  un- 
crystalline  sédiments.  The  Anglesea  rbcks  are  a  highly  inclined 
and  mtich  contorted  séries  of  quartzose,  micaceous,  chloritic, 
and  epidotic  «chists,  with  diorites  and  dark-éolored  chroinifer- 
ous  serpentines,  ail  of  which,  after  a  careful  examiivii^  of 
them  in  the  collections  of  the  Geological  Survey  o&  Ôrèq,t 
Britain,  I  consider  identical  with  the  rocks  *of  the  Gfreen 
Mountain  or  Huronian  séries.  A  similar  view  of  their  âge  is 
shared  by  Phillips  and  by  Sedgwick,  in  opposition  to  the 
opinion  of  the  British  survey.  The  former  asserts  that  the 
crystalline  schists  of  Anglesea  are  "  below  ail  the  Cambrian 
rocks  "  ;  t  while  Sedgwick  expresses  the  opinion  that  they  are 
of  "  a  distinct  epoch  from  the  other  rocks  of  the  district,  and 
evidently  older."  X  " 

Associated  with  the  fossiliferous  Devonian  rocks  of  the 
Rhine  is  a  séries  of  crystalline  schists,  similar  to  those  just 
noticed,  seen  in  the  Taunus,  the  Hundsriick,  and  the  Ardennes. 
Thèse,  in  opposition  to  Dumont,  who  regarded  them  as  belong- 
ing  to  an  older  System,  arodeclared  by  Romer  to  hâve  resulted 
from  a  subséquent  altération  of  a  portion  of  the  Devonian 
sédiments.  § 

Tuming  now  to  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  we  hâve  a  simi- 
lar séries  of  crystalline  schists,  presenting  ail  the  mineialogical 


».  Oeol.  of  Korth  Wales,  pp.  145, 175. 

+  M  annal  of  Geology  (1856),  89. 

î  Geol.  Journal  for  1845,  449. 

S  Naumann,  GeogDoaie;  2d  édition^  IL  SSSe: 


^a^^^'^^Âa^iih^il 


>i^»r^i 


XIII.]  OEOONOSY  or  TH8  APPALACHUNa  271 

characters  of  those  of  Norway  and  of  Anglesea.  which  accorf 
^  ing  to  Murchiaon  and  Giekie,  are  youngTr  th^n  the  foS" 

r  ous  bmestones  of  the  western  coa«t  (about  the  horiLn^tr; 

>aeath  them.  Profe«aor  Nicol,  on  the  contrary.  maintj^ 
that  thia  apparent  superposition  ia  due  to  nniSl  7T\ 
thes^c^stalline  schists  a^«,  ^1,,  oldt  tl^„  ^"^1^ 
bnans,  which  appear  to  the  weat  \t  fu  ^' 

n^ents  reatil^  r  th^wLl^'^nr^rL^r 
confound  thèse  cryst^^e  schists  of  t  sZtish  mghTnS 

diffeSénces  of  oL       ^f^f  <!««"««•*     I"  the  présence  of  .the 

veAvTl  t!       ''''''^  ^*"'  ^^°  «h'^^^  i^  this-contro- 
veAy,  we  may  be  pemntted  to  ^  whether,  in  such  a  case 

8t«tigraph,cal  évidence  alone  is  to  be  relied  upon.     RepJTi 
ex^plea  hâve  ehown  that  the  most  skilM  straUgraphZ^y 
be  mxs  ed   m  studying   the  structu,^  of  a  disturLd  reèion 
where  there  ar«  no  organic  remains  to  guide  them,  or  where 
nnexpected  faults  and  overshdes  may  deceiye  ^ven  the  mo^ 
eagacious      I  am  convinced  that  in  the  study  of  the  ciystalline 
sch^ts,  the  persistence  of  certain  minerai  characters  must  be^ 
Klied  upon  as  a  guide,  and  that  the  language  used  by  Delesse, 
m  1847.  wiU  be  fouud  susceptible  of  a  wide  application  to 
^  cystoUine  strata  :  "Rocks  of  the  same  âge  bave  most  gêner- 

.  a^ly  the  sarte  chemical  and   minéralogical  composition,  and 

,  i^ciprocally,  rocks  having  the  same  chemical  composition  and 
-  the  same  minerais,  associated  in  the  same  manner,  are  of  the 
^e  âge  t  !„  this  connection  the  te'stimony  of  Professor 
James  Hall  is  also  to  the  point.  Speaking  of  the  crystalline 
schists  of  the  White  Mountain  séries,  he  says  :  - 
iZ  ■^!,''y  .«^^7'"g  «t"d«nt  of  one  or  two  years'  expérience  in 
wTllTw  r  °^  '"^°''^^'  '''  *^«  ^«^  E»gJ«°<i  States  knows 
ri!*/"  T  ^'^^  *  °»ica-8chi8t  of  peculiar  but  vaiying 
character  from  Connecticut,  through  central  Massachusetts,  and 


^Bnn.  Soc.  deol.  de  Pr.  (2),  ÎV,  7867 


^ 


("d^  *-       v*^$^fe^.V«rvi.v^ai^eA^A.. 


^^^^ 


272 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHUÎre. 


[XtlI. 


thence^into  Vennont  and  New  Hampshjre,  by  the  présence  of 
staurolite  and  some  other  assoclated  minerais,  which  mark^  with  - 
the  B&me  unerfing  certainty  the  geologieal  relations  of  the  rock 
as  the  présence  of  Pentamerus  oblongus,  P.  galeatus,  Spiri/er 
Niagarenêiê,  or  S.  tnacropleura,  and  theîr  tespectively  asso- 
ciated  fossils,  do  the  relations  of  the  severfd  rocks  in  which 
thèse  occur."  * 

I  am  convinced  that  thèse  crystallijie  schists  of  Gennany, 
Anglesesi  and  the  Scotch  Highlands  will  be  found,  like  those 
of  Norway,  to  beloug  to  a  period  anterior  to  the  déposition  of 
the  Cambrian  sédiments,  and  wiU  correspond  with  the  newer 
gnoissic  séries  of  our  Àppalachian  région.  -There  exists,  in  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland,  a  great  volume  qf  ^ne-grained,  thin-bed- 
ded  mica-schists  with  ândalusite,  staîurolitja,  and  cyanibe,  whicli 
are  met  with  in  Argyleshire,  Aherdeenshire,  BanflFshire,  and  the 
Shetland  Isles.  Rocks  regarded  by  Harkness  as  identical  with 
thèse  o^  the  Scottish  Highlands  also  occiïr  in  Donegal  and 
.  Mayo  in  Jîfehind.  Through  the  kindness  of  the  Rev.  Professor 
Haughton  of  Trinity  Collège,  and  Mr.  Robert  H.  Scott,  then  , 
of  Dublin,  I  received  some  years  since  a. large  collection  of 
the  crystalline  rocks  of  Donegal,  which  I  am  thus  enabled  to  , 
compare  with  those  of  North  America,  and  to  assert  the  exist-  , 
ence,  in  the  northwest  of  Iteland, 'of  our  second  and  third 
séries  of  crystalline  schists.  The  Green  Mountain  rocka  are 
tha%  êxactly  represented  by  th^  da'rk-colored  chromifbrous 
serpentines  of  Aghadoey,  and  the  steatite,  crystalline  talc,  and 
actinolite  of  Crohy  H|âd  ;  while  tîie  mica-schist  of  Loch  Derg, 
with  white  quartz,  blue  cyanjite,  staurolite,  and  gamet,  ail 
uuited  in  the  same  fragment,  cannot  be  distinguished  from 
spécimens  found  at  Cavendish,  Veymont,  and  Windham,  Maine. 
The  finegrained  andalusite-schists  of  Clooney  Lough  are  ex- 
actly  like  those  from  Mount  Washington  ;  while  the  gran|tf)id 
mica-slates  from  seyeral  other  l,ocaIities  in  Donegal  are  not  less 
clearly  of  the  type  of  the  White  Mouutaii^  séries.  Similar 
micaceous  schists,  with  andalus.^te  (chiastolite),  occur  «on  Skid- 
daw,  in  Cuiïiberland,  England,  the  relations  of  which  hâve 

^«  Paleontologyof  N«w  York,^VijlrHt,^iitrodootioB,pBgBi>3r— 


s^ 


,  ^ .  .^...  .^..J 


JtlII.J 


GE0GN08Y  OF  THE  APPALACHIAN8. 


273 


rockB  oi  Comwall  "  an/fr!?  ^^       ^   ""^  '  resemblance  to  the 

holding  L  part,  JraM  g:XtJ:tr  °"'""^"" 

found  to  b.  Ment  JfXtiVL'''^f  r'?'«  "« 
il  i«  worthy  of  noti™  th.t  M^   i  t  .        '  fonnation,t  and 

'i«ls,  he  elsevrhei»  in  \„""""™'  f  ""  Wow  the  giaptoUtio 

of  Anglais  and  S^J^tZ  °^"^  """  r^""»"™  -»» 
-hnd,  being  distinct  fteôTThr  T         f«P'<»ontwl  in  Cumbei- 


.":dS:^e^tl!:r.rr  °' *!.«'r'""''  --Ut. 


Salles,  near  Pontiwin  R^ff  *^e  chiastohte-echists  of  Les 

called  attention  toThr^       «  ^^  "*  *^«  connection,  bas 

by  «on.e  t  Z^^^^^^^^^  ^«^blance  to  fosaik  présent 

v/tion'especia^^LTlHTw"**''^  '^  BoblayeVobser^ 

and  DaliiZ  aiee  withZÏf        *  '"'''  ""^'^^^y  ^'^^^^^c 
er  agrée  with  De  Beamnont  and  Dufrenoy  in  placing 

J^ll-  Soc.  GteoL  4e  Fr   X  ggf 

0  American  Journa,  «f  agence  (2),  I.  «5,  V.  116. 


is;âi'i*i&«/ **iW'>ih_ij'^-^f*ri,'  * 'Vsjf- 


a 


ù 


l'iSt' 


»■ 


274 


GEOONOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS. 


[XIII. 


the  chiastolite-schists  of  Brittany  at  the  very  base  of  the  tran- 
sition sédiments,  niarking  the  summit  of  the  crystalline  schists.* 

With  regard  to  the  ciystalline  schists  of  Lakes  Huron  and 
Superior,  to  which  the  name  of  the  Huronian  System  has  beeu 
given,  the  observations  of  ail  who  hâve  studied  the  région 
concur  in  placing  them  unconformably  beneath  the  sédiments 
which  are  supposed  to  represent  the  base  of  the  New  York 
System  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  they  i^st  unconfonnably  on 
the  Laurentian  gneiss,  fragments  of  which  are  includcd  in  the 
'^  Huronian  conglomérâtes.  The  gneissic  serieâ  of  the  Green 
Mountains  had,  how^ver,  as  we  hâve  seen,  been,  since  1841, 
regarded,  by  the  brothers  Eogers,  Mather,  Hall,  Hitchcockj 
Adams,  Logan,  myself,  and  others,  as  Lower  Silurian  (Cara- 
brian  of  Sedgwick).  Eaton  and  Emmons  had  alone  claimed 
for  it  a  pre-Cambriau  âge,  until,  in  1862,  Macfarlane  ventured 
to  unité  it  with  the  Huronian  System,  and  to  ideutify  both  with 
the  crystaÏÏine  schists  of  a  similar  âge  in  Norway.  Later  ob- 
servations in  Michigan  justify  still  further  this  comparison;  for 
not  only  the  more  schistose  beds  of  the  Green  Mountain  séries, 
but  even  thé  mica-schists  of  the  third  or  White  Mountain 
séries,  with  stauroUte  and  gamet,  are  represented  in  Michigan, 
as  appears  by  the  récent  collections  of  Major  Brooks  of  the 
Geological  Survey  of  Michigan,  kindly  placed  in  my  hands  for 
examinatioD.  He  informs  me  that  thèse  latter  schists  are  the 
highest  of  the  crystalline  strata  in  the  northem  peninsula. 
{Aîite,  page  18.) 

To  the  north  of  Lake  Superior,  as  I  hâve  already  shown 
elsewhere,  the  schists  of  this  third  séries,  which,  as  early  as 
1861,  I  compared  to  those  of  the  Appalachians,  are  widely 
spread  ;  while  in  Hastings  County,  forty  miles  north  of  Lake 
Ontafio,  rocks  having  the  mineralogical  and  lithological  charac- 
ters  both  of  the  second  and  third  séries  are  found  resting  on 
the  first  or  Laurentian  séries,  the  three  aj^rently  unconform- 
able,  and  ail  in  tum  overlaid  by  horizontal  Trenton  limestone.t 

We  hâve  shown,  that  in  Pennsylvania,  while  some  of  thèse 

•  Bull.  Soc.  Oeol.  de  Fr.  (2),  XVIII.  664. 
t-Anwrieair  Jonnial  of  Seience  (3)j  laXïr^g^Md  L.  M.  = 


:^"1  GEOGNOSY  OP  THE  APPALACHIANS.  275 

schists  of  the  second  anA  ♦t,;»^ 

primai  rocks  bv  H    ^  p  "^T  "^''^  ""«arded  as  altered 

p  imai  rocks  by  H    D.  Rogers,  others,  lithologicaUy  similar 

XluetrL  bftr  *:  *'^  «^^«-«^eda^o^^sei^hteb 
.^aroelieve  to  be  their  true  position,     Professor  W  T^  P«„ 

^  lately  infornjed  ^e  that  in'  Virginia  a  ^S  Irif  ,'  haS 

tLe  character.  of  the  Green  Mountain  rocks,  is  cleariroveS 

u,conformably  by  the  West  primai  pateU  straL  oT  the 

regio^      Commg  north,.ard,  the  uncrjstalline  anàlUt^  and 

and  bt  John  New  Brunswick,  overlie  unconformably  crvstâl- 
tae  schists  of  the  second  séries;  and  in  the  latter  ^Z  t 
one  locahty,  rocks  which  are  by  Bailey  and  MatthewXrfS 
of  taurentian  âge.     In  Newfoundland,  in  like  manner  f^!^ 

P^po»  for  ihem  the  n^  „f  the  TerrZ^  .t^^'f  ™  '" 

p.tr 'ef'Te^^t't™:; -t^  7^^^  '"  - 

po«ible  th.t  tt."wX  ;S^"  "^r-    I'  "  -'  i- 

teher  St  i»  tLrÎZ  S!    1^  f  r  ^^'^  '■  •""  "■"" 
">«»  of  f^       ^'*"  *•  '"  "  <>■"■  of  dorivatioi.  Klher 


•Hwt^  Froc  Bort.  Sog  Nat.  Hfat.,  rVt^bcrJlLiaTO 
=*=^«»rtc«.  Jonrna  or  Science  (2^1  8?     ^ 


Ih,  ^lM'^      4  * 


.:l,--:. 


276 


GEOGNOSY   OF  THE  APPALACHIANa 


[XIIL 


regarded  by  the  Messrs.  Kogers  as  belonging  to  the  Champlain 
division,  led  them,  in  1846,  to  look  upon  the  White  Mountains 
as  altered  strata  belonging  to  the  Levant  division  of  their 
classification,  corresponding  to  the  Oneida,  Médina,  and  Clinton 
of  the  New  York  System.     In  1848,  Sir  WiUiam  Logan  came 
to  a  somewhat  similar  conclusion.     Accepting,  as  we  hâve  seen, 
the  view  of  Emmons,  that  the  strata  about  Québec  included  a 
portion  of  the  Levant  division,  and  regarding  the  Green  Moun- 
tain gneisses  as  ù^  équivalents  of  thèse,  he  was  induced  to 
place  the  White  Mountain  rocks  still  higher  in  the  geological 
séries  than  the  Messrs.  Eogers  had  done,  and  expressed  hia 
belief  that  they  might  be  the  altered  représentatives  of  the 
New  York  System,  from  the  base  of  the  Lower  Helderberg  to  the 
top  of  the  Chemung;    in  other  words,  that  they  were  not 
Middle  Silurian,  but  Upper  Silurian  and  Devonian.    This  view 
adopted  and  enforced  by  me,*  was  further  supported  by  Lesley 
in  1860,  and  bas  been  generally  accepted  up  to  this  time.     In 
1870,  however,  I  ventured  to  question  it,  and  in  a  published 
letter,  addressed  to  Professor  Dana,  concladed,  from  a  great 
number  of  fects,  that  there  exista  a  system  of  crystalline  schists 
distinct  from,  and  newer  than,  the  Laurentian  aud  Huronian, 
to  which  I  gave  the  provisional  name  of  Terranovan  [since 
called  Montalban],  constituting  the  thiid  or  W^te  Mountain 
séries,  which  appears  i\pt  only  throughout  th.e  Appalacl^ians,  but 
westward  to  the  north  of  Lake  Ontario,  and  aronnd  and  beyond 
Lake'Superior.t    Although  I  hâve,  in  common  with  most  other 
American  geolc^ts,  maintained  that  the  crystalline  rocks  of 
the  Green  Mountain  and  White  Mountain  séries  are  altered 
palœozoic  sédiments,  I  find,  on  a  careful  examination  of  the 
évidence,  no  satisfactory  proof  of  such  an  âge  and  origin,  but 
Ml  array  of  facts  which  appear  to  me  incompatible  with  the 
hitherto  received  view,  and  lead  me  to  concfaide  that  the  whole 
of  our  crystalline  schists  of  eastem  North  America  aie  not  only 
pre-Silurian  but  pre-Cambiian  in  âge. 

*  -^■ 
•  Geological  Suirey  of  GanadA,  Report  1847-48,  p.  68;  aliio  American 
Journal  of  Science  (2),  IX.  1#» 
t  American  Journal  of  Bcieno»  (2),  L.  88. ? 


\>&.\.^^',\ja,,.i  .  £^*W,^),«i«^«a''il6ji-  ^u^/i*  Al  ^  ^  tf^  Jih^L'L^ii^'dk'it ^     ^  .t'\^^A£iM^fAL^0^^mf   'Jt^ 


-"CSF, 


XIII.J 


GEOGNpsir  OF  THE  APPALACHIANa 


277 


entertained  as  to  their  aTTnH     T      f  ^  ^^  ^^«  ^^^ 
America  and  i„  E^^  ^t  hf  ^'t^*^  ^^*^«"^'  t>«'t  ^ 

-d,  of  thèse  -k3,tro:t;Tn  :r;e'Xy^^^      '"^'«' 
basis  of  geological  science.  ^        ^^''^  ^««  *'  t^^e 

Credner,  of  Leipa„  in  L  ^^  Professor  Hermann 

fonnations  of  S  LTric::^^  Witl^'^ff  ^'  P^^"""" 
the  Huronian  the  gn^^^^  Z'},  ^*^^^^^«°«'  ^e  refers  to 
includes  with  it.  as  part^/Z  H  ^"^'^  ^'^"°*^''»«'  l>"t  ' 

.^      Lower  Taconic  roc  Jof  Vemtt^?';f  .^«^  '^'*'°^'  *^«  ««^-^^^^i 
^       crinoids."    Credner  thus  flTl  tl    ''"''"^  ''  """^"'^^  ^^^ 

in  one  System  th^aSt  ^^.M^  "T'^' *^«  ««"^«""^ing 
fossiUferous  sedi^Lr    lL«f7        ""^  ''^''''  "^'^  ^^e  newer 
places,  first,lhe   Uplr  Jl     -^  "nconformably  on  thèse,  he 
hii  toapJrt  of  the  oJèf^""'!'  ««"^P^^^ing,  acco«li„g  to 
sandstone  '  In  tht  h^  h^m^""''  "^^'^^'  '^«  ^«^«'-n^ 
-ho.  however,  joups  the  JT^   f  *''  °^^^'  P^^'  ^"-"^ 
the  Taconic  sX^^Uue  C^         "''''•  "^"''"^  *^^'°^  i» 
a  portion  of  the  T^'o  Je  of  S^"'''  T*l"«  '^"  "^"«'  ""ite« 
and  refera  the  otheT^ll  r^  "^'^  '^  ^""^"'«^  «^«t^n», 
Silurian.     Thèse  Lr;ï;3*^S:tt^h'^  ^ 
Pape'r,  by  the  same  authoron  the  Tu   T     ""  *  "'"^  '«^«"' 
accompanied  with  sectfoi  Tn^  ?^*"^ '^'*"°^'  ^^^^^  « 

'  In  this.  not  content^th  Tn  Ta-  '  f  «^^«^''^^  ««lored  map.t 
foasUife'rous  Zte  of  tt  ST  ".'''  ''"""^°  ^''^^  *b« 

-histsof  the  Or^nMl^:^,^X7,  *°'  -^  ^'^^^^'^^ 
schists  of  the  W]..t«  Tir«:    *  •  "  *^®  gneisses  and  mica. 

"*"  ""«■  ""«"  IXM  to  Ihe  8ea  at  Port- 

t  Petemiftnn'.  nu . ,    .... 


T  Prtennann-,  Oeographi^he  Mittheilu„g,„.    2  Heft,  isn 


..A 


278 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANa , 


[XIII. 


land  is  regarded  as  Laurentian.     This,  on  Oedner's  map,  is 
also  made  to  include,  with  the  exception  of  the  White^oun- 
tains  themaelves,  ail  the  rocks  of  the  third  or  White  Moun-, 
tain  séries,  which  cover  so  laige  a  part  of  New  England.    îhose 
who  hâve  fûllowed  the  historical  sketch  already  given  can  see 
how  widely  thèse  notions  of  Credner  dififer  fbm  lihose  of  Em- 
mons,  and  ^m  ail  other  American  geologists,  and  how  much 
they  are  at  variance  with  the  présent  state  of  our  knowledge. 
It  is  much  to  be  fegretted  that  so  good  a  geologist  and  htholo- 
gist  should,  from  a  too  superficial  study,  hâve  fallen  into  thèse 
errors,  which  can  oiily  retaid  the  progress  of  comparative  ge- 
ognosy,  for  which  he  has  done  so  much.    In  Engl^d,  again, 
Credner  confounds  the  Cambrian  and  Huronian,  referring  to 
the  latter  system  the  whole  of  the  Loogmynd  rocks  with  their 
characteristic  Cambrian  fikuna,  —  a  view  which  is  supported  only 
by  the  conjectured  Cambrian  âge  of  the  crystalline  schists  of 
Anglesea,  which  are  pré-Cambrian  and  probably  Huronian,  lik« 
the  Urschiefer  of  Scandinavia,  which  Credner  conectly  refers 
to  the  lutter  system,  as  Macfarlane  and  Bigsby  had  donp  before 
him.     He,  moreover,  reoognizes  in  the  similar  crystalline  schists 
of  Scotland,  the  Urals,  and  varions  parts  of  Germauy,  incfud- 
ing  those  of  B&varia  and  Bohemia,  a  newer  system,  overlying 
the  prïmary  or  Laurentian  gneiss,  and  xorresponding  to  the 
Huronian  or  Green  Mountain  séries  of  Nor^h  America  ;  while 
he  suggests  a  correspondence  with  similar  rocks  in  Japan;  Ben- 
gal,  and  BraziL     In  a  collection  of  rocks  brought  from  the 
latfer  couutry  by  Professer  C.  F.  Hartt,  I  hâve  found,  as.else- 
where  stated,*  what  appear  to  be  représentatives  of  the  three 
types  of  crystalline  schists  which  hâve  been  distinguished  in 
eastem  North  America. 

[I  hâve  not  in  the  preceding  discussion  alluded  to  the  Norian 
séries,  otherwise  called  the  Labradorian  or  Upper  Laurentian, 
for  the  reason  that  although  largely  developed  in  the  southem 
part  of  the  Adirondack  r^on,  it  does  not  occur  on  our  Une  of 
section,  and,  moreover,  was  not  certainly  known  in  the  Appala- 
chians.  Subséquent  observations  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  ■ 
^^«.asJ&tiOT,  ItoeembaF  I,  ISTfrf  «ad  Hartf»  Qoultmy  rf  BnBi^|R  MO. 


'<^ 


*i-„. 


'  ^ 


XIII.] 


QEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS. 


279 


New  Hampshire  having,  however,  shown  the  existence  of  rock« 
-ipposed  to  belong  to  this  séries  in  tl.e  légion  of  1  wWte 
Muunteins  a  brief  history  of  it  will  not  be  out  of  place  TvS^ 

mXull^'^T  "^T""^  "^  Science  for  Februaiy.  1870 

»g  0  a  g«at  straUfled  séries,  ,,hich  w.s  .t  fi«l  i/cM^b' ht 

-di«„„s  ver,  like  .hese  of  tTÙ^^^Cll  l'X 

of  which  the  norites  mako  up  eo  laree  «  naît     •n„  .         î 

P«s.t.on  from  anorthite  to  anderine,  but  ^ôemuVTear  laZ 
donte  m  composition.  The  color  of  the^Mcfa  i.  Zi„  T" 
«.me  ehade  of  bl„e.-^from  bh,ish-bI«rorvt  J  ^  bZl' 
W,  smoke^nay,  or  lavender,  more  .«rely  ^ta^M  Z^ 
M^oco..omUlyg^,Uh,Mu^^e_iLrSljr^-_„ 
■««-rathereuîsmftees  a»  opaque  rtite.     Thèse  -oritT!^    ~ 


âiJi«tiL>>s, 


*280 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS. 


[XIIL 


.     sometimçs  nearly  pute  feldspar,  but  often  ipclude  small  portions  ^ 
a      of  hyperathentf,  pyroxene,  or  hornblende,  —  the  former  two 
being  sometimes  associated  in  tho  same  «pecimen,  and  in  con- 
.     tapt  with  each  other.     A  black  mica  (biotite),  red  gamet,  epi- 
\  j  dote,  chrysoUte,  and  menacannite  (titaûic  iron)    are  fieqdently' 
.  présent  in  thèse  recks  ;  quartz,  however,  is  rarely  éeen,  and  then 
only  in  small  quantities.    Through  m  admixture  of  the  first- 
named  minerais  thèse  norit^-pass  inté^^yperite,  diabase,  and 
diorite.     The  norit«s  vary  in  texture,  being  sometimes  coaisely 
granitoid,  and  at  other  times  fi^e  gramed  and  nearly  impalpable. 
The  coarser  varieties  o|len  présent  large  cleav^ble  masses,  show- 
ing  the  striée  chafacteristic  of  the  polysynthetic  macles  of  the 
triclinic  feldspars,  and  sometimes  exhibit  a  fine  play  of  coloré, 
as  in  the  weU-known  spécimens  from  J^brador.    A  gneipsic 
structure  is  well  marked  in  many  of  the  less'coarse-gr^ned 
vaneties  of  norite,  and  the  Unes  of  bedding  are  shown  by  tjie 
arrangement  of  the  various  foreign  minerais.    Although  norites 
predominate  in  the  Norian  séries,  they  arô  found  in  the  area 
of  thèse  rocks  wi^ch  is  seén  to  the  north  of  Montreal  to  be  in- 
terétratifiéd  with  bèds  of  micaceous  orthoclase-gneiss,  quartzite, 
and  crystaUine  limestone,  not  unUke  those  met  with  in  thé- 
Eaurentian  and  White  Mountain  séries.    It  was  frôm  their  dis- 
tribution in  this  région  that  Sir  "WiUiam  Logan  was  enabled  to 
show  that  the  rocks  of  the  Norian  séries  rest  uncônformably 
upon  the  gneisses  and  limestones  of  the  Laurentian.    Further 
évidence  of  the  same  kind  was  obtained  by  Mr.  Richardson,  in 
1869,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  where 
rocks  of  the  Norian  séries  were  foimd  to  lie  in  discordant 
stratification,  and  at  modeste  angles  on  the  nearly  vertical 
Laurentian  gneiss.     The  norites  may  be  readily  studied  in 
Essex  County,  New  York,  where  they  reach  the  shore  of  Lake 
Champlain  just  above  the  town  of  .Westport,  and  include  the 
great  deposits.of  titanic  iron  ores  of  this  region.     The  tit»nic 
ores  of  Bay  St.  Paul,  Lake  St.  John,  and  the  Bay  of  .giVen 
Islands,  in  Canada,  also  occur  in  Norian  rocks.     In  ail  of  thèse 
localities  they  appear  to  be  directly  superposed  on  the  Laur«n- 
tian  ;  but  in  the  vicinity  of  St  John,  New  Brunswick,  a  smaU 


r'    ^    fi^s , 


pj!:r  ^*çf)p^j^ 


.\ 


\XIII.J 


GEOGNOSY  OP  TÛE  APPALACHIA^S. 


«^of  norifces  is  foùnd  tn  «„  ' 

~'  upon  tte  g.ei«^  °"?^"  "«'T  "^""^"'S  t»  Hikhcock, 

.     of  gH..it„a  gnei.,  ^pplT-^'^  -o.  an„i.„t  ^^ 
The  hypersthene  rock  of  ou,,^  ^      /^V**^^  ^^urentian, 
-  an  e^ptive  rock;  and  Giet'  rhi  '^  ''"^^'^«^  -«-^«d 
of  a  part  of  Skye,  pnUisk^^tms^oTTr  7  *'^  ^«^^«^^ 
Geological  Society,  XIV  naJ  T^         (Q^rterly  Jo„maI  of  the 

.  certain  syenites  ani^reenstones  ^V^^  "^  '°'^"^'  '^'"^  ^^^^ 
-t  intrusive,  thougf  "pZ'  Sf/^  '^"^^^  ^^^^^  «^  - 
^oc.  cit.,  pp.  n  _  i4      si;7^  Jf;„  *^«  '"^«"«r  of  g^ites 

'  Scavig,  andothe,^  m  MaccXh'«.  n  .  ""^  '^'^^  ^^«^  ^-och 
^hiçh  I  hâve  examined^  ï  "^*^°" ^«^"^ *hat  vicinity 

American  norites.Thot^±!n'  '''"*'"^  "^'^  *^«  ^«rth 
calJed  attention  tô  thl  ll^tl  '^^^'^  '^  ^^^«"^ted.  I 
Journal  for  July   ;^!!« '«««'"blances  m  the  Dublin  Quarteri^ 

^^,  0^  Wwhi^^t'vsSht  ^-^-- Hat;;^ 

described  and  analvzed  th«     "^'^^J^^  S«avig,  subsequently 
;«.  aeco«li„g  tohi^^^Hetu^^^^^^^^  ^«^«^ity  ;\hich 

(BnhHnQuarterlyJ^J?^^^^^^ 

Ihe   distribution  of  fho  „  »  page  y4.; 

Huronian,  and  Uol^  ^^^ ^''^l  ''  ^^   ^--' 
^em  to  showthat  ehese  are  relint     ^""^'"   «^««  ^^«"J^- 
tmct,  and  unconformable  séries  2,1^,''"'""'  "^  ^*'  ^i«- 
«^ore  ancient  floor  of  g  J  1  '  ""'"•^if^^J^  «P^ead  o„t  over  a 
that  the  four  séries  thr^^-^'"'^  °^  Laumitian  âge-   but 
crystalline  st.tS  'X  T^^  TTt'"^  -^«^^  «f  the 
certain.     Ho^  „,any  mom  such^ola^""^   "^  "  ^^  "«  °^n« 
down  over  this  re Jon  a^d  sub^-T    T  °^*^  ^'"'  ^^«^  ^«^^^ 
no  traces,  or  only  So^CL^^T  '"'''  *"^^'  *--"«       ^ 
f  ^,  P-^We  that  a  cai.f«,Tdv 5  I?  V  ^"''"  -»>"' 


,  » 


^lii^t  .,t!.â|»jû4^'~ 


.4 


'-v 


K^ 


282 


GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALACHIANa 


[XIIL 


New  Brunswick  alone  small  areas  of  palaeozoic  sédiments  which 
are  shown  by  their  organic  remains  to  belong  to  not  lésa  than 
fivo  periods,  namely,  Menevian,  Lower  Helderbeig,  Chemung, 
Lower  Carboniferous,  and  Carboniferous,  ail  perfectly  well  dis^ 
tinguished,  and  each  reposing  directly  upon  the  ancient  crys- 
talline  rooks,  we  are  prepared  for  a  history  not  less  varied  and 
complex  for  the  rocks  belonging  to  Eozoic  time.  (Seethe 
author's  Address  before  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  En- 
gineers,  in  their  Proceedings  for  February,  1873.) 

Professor  C.  H.  Hitchcock,  from  the  résulta  of  the  Geological 
Survey  of  New  Hampshire,  now  in  progress,  announces,  in  1873 
and  1874,  a  large  number  of  divisions  in  the  crystalline  rocks 
of  this  State.     The  Norian  séries  there,  according  to  him,  rests 
unconformably  ypon  ancient  gneisses,  which,  as  he  suggests,  be- 
long  perhaps  to  the  Laurentian,  the  appearapcoof  which  in  north- 
eastem  Massachusetts  I  pointed  out  in  1870.     With  the  Norian 
he  has  however  included  a  great  séries  of  granités  and  of  compact 
felsites,  some  of  which,  from  spécimens,  appear  identical  with  the 
orthophyres  of  our  easteni  coasta,  of  Lake  Superior,  and  Missouri. 
Thèse,  so  far  as  my  observations  go,  are  in  no  way  related  to  thé 
Norian,  but  probably  belong  to  the  Huronian  séries.    (Anté,  page 
187.)    Besides  thèse,  he  recognizes  the  White  Mountain  séries 
of  gneisses  and  andalusite-schists  (Montalban).     He  dea^ribes 
under  the  name  of  gneiss,  the  so^aUed  granités  of  Concord 
and  Fitzwilliam,  which  I  had  abeady,  in  1870,  declared  to  be 
gneisses  associated  with  the  mica-achists  of  the  Montalban 
senes.     (ArUe,  page  188.)    This  séries  he  supposes  to  be  more 
ancient  than  the  weU-characterized  Huronian  rocks  of  the  State  • 
birt  admits  in  addition  a  second  and  more  récent  séries  of  mica-' 
schists  with  andalusite  and  staurolite,  named  the  Coos  group. 
Jurther  researches  in  this  disturbed  région  will  be  required  to 
détermine  whether,  besides  this  séries  of  andalusite  and  stau- 
rohte-bearing   mica-schists,  which  (associated   with  gneisses) 
occurs  in  other  régions,  as  I  hâve  in  the  previous  pages  of  this 
eetoy  endeavored  to  show,  above  the  Huronian,  there  is  another 
and  aj^  older  séries  of  similar  rocks,  or  whether  the  two  are  one 
and  the  same  séries,  repeated  by  stratigraphical  accidents.] 


\ 


\J&iiSÉ^ 


/■. 


XIII.] 


ORIOIX  OF  CBY8TAUIKE  lOCM. 


283 

_   .   U    Thk  Oaiom  op  CRmALLw.  liocwL 

"P  a  gr^at  portio^ofTe  «'^^-«"^^^^      -^-h  n-ko 
face  is  a  question  of  niuch  Zw    f  ~?^  "^  "»«  *^h'-  ««^ 

in  chenu..!  oonatituTonT^'r^Î 'T.'^^"  ""^  ^*'^ 
and  are  now,  by  the  g^ate^l^^'™  "««f  »anical  aedinleu^ 

forrnea  in  eariier  tin.es^  ^^^1°'  "°^^  "^^''"-'^ 
jstmg  rocks,  not  very  unlUce  thet  ^*"'"  "^  P'^'^'"^)^  «x- 
tnown  foliations  ZT^m  t?        «^P^»"»"  ;  the  oldest 

^  the  imagination  confit  Irtr^'r^"    ^^"^  *'^- 

'  «"f  eof  unstmtified.'a:/JltrthT.^:^^^^^^^  T!"^^^  "'« 
to  hâve  pr^sented  before  waterlad  J  *^  !^  '""^  ^  «"PP««^ 
ho^TeVer,  my  présent  Xn  f      ^*^^^«"n  its  work.     It  is  not 

'  -di.entary^S"Xh  1^^^  ^f  "^^  ^^°^^°«  «^' 
page  63.)  *^®  eJsewhere  discussed.     (Jn<^, 

of  Ihe  Mlicales  of  the  11^^^  "«  ~nmt,ag  i„  g^i 

«lumin.  .nd  alkahl      tT  "V"'"''"''''»»  "i'h  .ffieat*  „f 

chiefco^,„J.'t„™,f^L'°t  '  ""  l*"*^  "  «■- 
ohle,  serpentine,  taie,    S    eS"'""''  '"""""''?^''  "'«7'- 
feWapare,  sueh  m  UiLdorite      J       .  ^'"'"'  "''  '*«"''=       ■ 
■^"o-otle..  «U^S'  tlS  tS'»'^  °^  "■"  »«°°'' 
-«  .d  WMendie  X"^^^«^^-" 


&ik:i><^V,':^«>«  ■ 


>,H.  .iË^!.fiA*>>'fu^,i-4'>,  ^  ^ii>r''" 


y.' 


î^r 


284 


OBIGIN  OF  CRYSTALLINE   ROCKS. 


[XIIL 


ophiohtee,  and  talcose,  chloritic,  and  epidotic  rocks.  Inter- 
mediate  vanetie»  reaulting  from  the  aasociation  of  the  minerais 
of  thifl  class  with  those  of  the  first,  and  also  with  thé  materials 
of  aon-sihcated  rocks,  such  as  limestones  and  dolomites,  show 
an  occasional  blending  of  the  conditions  under  which  thèse 
vanous  types  of  rocks  were  formed. 

The  distinctions  jiist  drawn  between  the  two  great  divisions 
of  sUicated  rocks  are  not  confined  to  stratified  deposits,  but 
are  «qually  well  mab-ked  in  eruptive  and  unstratified  masses 
among  which  the  first  type  is  lepresented  by  trachyf^  and 
granités;  and  the  secohd,  by  dolentes  and  diorites.     This  fun- 
damental  différence  between  acidic  and  basic  rocks,  as  the  two 
classes  hâve  been  called,  finds  its  expression  in  the  théories  of     - 
PhUhps,  Durocher,  and  Bunsen,  who  hâve  dedueed  aU  silicated 
rocks  from  two  suppftsed  layers  of  molten  matter  within  the 
earths  crust,  oonsisting  respectively  of  acidic  and  basic  mix- 
tures ;  the  trachytic  and  pyroxenic  magmas  of  Bunsen.    From 
thèse,  by  a  process  of  partial  crystallization  and  eliquation,  or 
by  commmghng  in  varions  proportions,  those  eruptive  rocks 
which  départ  more  or  less  from  the  normal  types  are  supposed 
by  the  theonsts  of  this  school  to  be  generated.     (Ante,  pages 
à  and  23.)     The  doctrine  that  thesé  eruptive  rofcks  are  not 
denved  directly  from  a  hitherto  uncongealed  nucleus,  but  are 
Boftened  and  crystallized^  sédiments,  in  fact,  that  the  whole  of  ^ 
the  rocks  at  présent  known  to  us  hâve  at  one  time  been  ^ 
aqueous  deposits,  bas,  however,  found  its  advocates.     In  sup- 
port  of  this  View,  I  hâve  endeavored  to  sl^ow  that  the  natural 
resuit  of  forces  constantly  in  opération  tends  to  résolve  me- 
chanical  sédiments  into  two  classes  :  the  one  coarse,  sandy,  and 
perm^ble  ;  the  other  fine,  clayey,  and  impervious.    The  action 
ot  mfaltratmg  atmospheric  waters  on  the  first  and  more  sili-' 
Clous  strata  will  remove  from  them  lime,  magnesia,  iron-oxide, 
and  soda,  leaving  behind  silica,  alumina,  and  potash,  — the 
éléments  of  granitic,  gneissic,  and  trachytic  rocks.     The  finer 
and  more  aluminous  sédiments  (including  the  ruins  of  the  soft 
and  easily  (gmded  sUicates  of  the  pyioxene  group),  resisting 
the  penetiatièh  of  the  water,  will,  on  the  contrary.  letain  their 


\ 


m^~ 


'■è^'Vintiâ-iéi.  1 


k^k^& 


>\' 


xiti.] 


ORIGW  OP  CBYSTALLINE  BOCKS. 


285 


and  mari  correspondiL  to  the  ^  ^'  T  ""^^  '^^  «^  <^% 
"P  in  great  part  of  Zh^^  l'^'^,  ''^'  ^ut  stxata  made 
cally  uncha^ged  orth^  ith'ouaT  T'^'  *'°"«^  «^-"^- 

as  wm  be  seen  in  the  following  patron  t^P^V^"  ^^^' 
Aips,  hâve  even  been  mistaken  forL  /  ^'^'^^Sy  of  the 
sundarrecornposed  rocks  occtj^^^^  "'^  ^«^'  and 

.  .  ^N«-EnglandidmwJe^7^s„',\\°l«'--«-ndstones^ 
tion  and  deeay  I,,ve  probaWy  been  Jr^^/  '^"^*«^- 
mote  timee,  and  the  crystaUine  T  ^  ^  ^'^  ^^"^  ^«^  i«- 
-cks  n.ay  be  supposedT^Ve  ^^T'^^"'  °'  ^'^^  ^^*-« 

isfna^:ar:t;:':,?b^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

eties  of  cristalline  sL^aZC^r  ''  "^^^^  ''  '^^  ^ari- 
chysoUte,  hornblende,  diaLe  !mtr  ^'^''''^'' '^^'^^ 
and  orthocla8e,aU  of  whiTl^'  t      *^' •  P'"'*«'  labmdorite, 

V  then^selves,   fi^  Ju^'XlTwr? 'r  ^'-^- 
geological  student  will  «LT  l*  *'"*  admixture.     No 

-curas  n.e.be«  of  sfn.S  ^7  ""^^  ^  °^  *^-  -^ 
«er  in  which  serpentinesTr^i^Ti^r.  V^ "^^'  *^«  -- 
chlorite,  a^illite,  diorite,  h^mblendr  ^^^^^^  ^*^  !«««*«> 
th^.  in  their  tum,  with  qTartSÎ'  "!i  ^'^^'^'  '°^^'  «"^ 
-ch  a.  to  forbid  the'  notionTaf  aj^oflbe''^'"^"^  "^'^  ^ 
We  been  deposited,  with  their  ^        x  ^  ''*"^"«  înateriala 

wb.ch  theyare  oomp<«ed\ave  wïï^i^    «">mmm.Uçt 


j  „i„  TOinposecl  bave  resnlt»!  al       -«<'«»ia  pi 


iïâcf^£t«n&^tlk^  «^'^Ï^W 


èt:v%À^^5ife>i£^^J^>^„  *.v^  A  -  ^/'M  ««.^ 


286 


ORIGIN  GP  CBY8TALLINE  ROCKa 


[XIII. 


in  composition  to  the  présent,  by  the  takiqff  away  of  certain 
éléments  and  the  addition  of  certain  othere.  This  is  the 
theory  of  metamorphism  by  pseudomorphic  changes,  as  they 
are  calledy.and  is  the  one  taught  by  the  now  reigning  school  of 
chemical  geologista,  of  which  the  leamed  and  laborious  Bischof, 
whose  récent  death  science  déplores,  may  be  regarded  as  the 
great  exponent.  The  second  hypothesis  supposes  that-  the 
éléments  of  thèse  various  rocks  were  originally  deposited  as, 
for  the  most  part,  chemically  formed  sédiments,  or  précipitâtes  ; 
and  that  the  subséquent  changes  hâve  been  simply  molecular, 
or,  at  most,  confined  in  certain  cases  to  reactions  between  the 
mjngled  éléments  of  ,the  sediméïits,  with  the  élimination  of 
water  and  carbonic  acid.  It  is  proposed  to  consider  briefly 
thèse  two  opposite  théories,  which  seek  to  explain  the  origin 
of  the  rocks  in  question  respectively  by  pseudomorphic  changes 
in  pre-existing  crystalline  plutonic  rocks,  and  by  the  crystal- 
lizMion  of  aqueous  sédiments,  for  the  most  part  chemically 
formed  précipitâtes. 

Minerai  pseudomorphism,  that  is  to  say,  the  assumption  by 
one  minerai  substance  of  the  crystalline  form  of  another,  may 
arise /ih  several  ways.  First  of  thèse  is  the  filling  up  of  a 
mould  Ifift  by  the  solution  or  decvDmposition  of  an  imbedded 
crystal,  (r\T)rocess  which  soraetimes  tàkes  place  in  minerai  veins, 
where  thevprocesses  of  solution  and  déposition  can  be  freely 
carried  on.^  Allied  to  this  is  the  mineralizatipn  of  organic 
remâi(os,  where  carbonate  of  lime  or  sUica,  for  example,  fills 
the  porea  of  wood.  When  subséquent  decay  removes  the 
Woody  tissue,  the  vacant  apaces  may,  in  tbeir  tum,  be  filled  by 
the  same  or  another  species.*  In  the  second  place  we  may 
consider  pseudomoq)hs  from  altération,  which  are  the  resuit  of 
a  ^»dual  change  in  the  composition  of  a  minerai  species.  This 
process  is  exemplified  in  the  conversion  of  feldspar  into  kaolin 
by  the  losa  of  its  alkali  and  a  portion  of  silica,  and  the  fixa- 
tion of  water,  or  in  thç  change  of  ohalybite  into  limonite  by 
the  loss  of  carbonic  icià  and  the  absorption  of  water  and 
oxygen.       ..j^-      '   y'  -  ■     \ 


1.46. 


^Iff  " 


XIII.] 


ORiam  OP  CRYSTALLINE  R0CK8. 


287 


Tlie  doctnne  of  pseudomorphism  by  altération,  as  taugï^t  by 
Gustef  Rose,  Haidinger,  Blum,  Volger,  Rammelsberg,  DaniL 
Bischof,  and  many  othere,  leads  them,  howert»,  to  admit  still 
greater  and  more  remarkable  changes  tbù/ thèse,  and  to  main- 
tain  the  possibility  of  converting  almôst  any  silicate  into  any 
other.     Thus,  by  referring  to  the  pages  of  Bischof  s  Chemical 
Geology,  it  wiU  be  found  that  serpentine  is  said  to  exist  as  a 
pseudomorph^after  augite,  hornblende,  chiyeolite,  chondrodite 
garnet,  mica,   and  probably  also  after  labradorite  and  even 
orthoclase.     Serpentine  rock_or^olite  is  supposed  to  hâve 
resulted,  m  différent  cases,  fromjK^àlteration  of  hornblende- 
rock,  dionte,granulite,  and  even  granité,    ^ot'only  sihcâtes  of 
protoxides  and  aluminous  silicates  are  conceived  to  be  capable 
of  this  transformation,  but  probably  also  qoartz  itself  ;  at  least 
Blum  asserts  that  meerschaumi  a  closely  related  silicate   of 
magnesia,  which  sometimes  accompanies   serpentine,   results 
from  the  altération  of  flint  ;  whUe  according  to  Rose,  serpen- 
tine may  even  be  produced  IVom  dolomite,  ^hich  we  are  ^Id 

*  ^,  ^"^Ir*^  ^^  ^^^  '^*"'**^°^  °^  limestone.  But  this  is 
not  aU.  _  feldspar  ma/  replace  carbonate  of  lune,  and  carbon- 
ate of  hme^  feldspar  ;  no  that,  according  to  Volger,  some  gneis- 
soid  hmestones  are  probably  formed  from  gneiss  by  the  sub- , 
stitutmn  of  calcite  for  orthoclase.  In  this  way,  we  are  led  ' 
from  gne,s8  or  granité  to  limestone,  from  limestone  to  dolomite, 
and  from  dolomite  to  serpentine,  or,  more  directly,  from  gran- 
Jte,  granuhte,  or  diorite  to  serpent%  at  once,  without  pawing 
through  the  mtermediate  stages  of  limestone  and  dolomitrtiU 
we  are  ready  to  exclaim  in  the  words  of  Goethe,  — 


"Mich  «ngBtigt  das  VerftngUcho 
Ita|  widrigen  Oeschwatz, 
Wo  Nichts  verharret,  Ailes  ffieht, 
Wo  schon  venchwonâen  was  man  sieht,"» 


<: 


o- 


ii:f^  - 


Which  we  may  thns  translate  l  «  I  am  yexed  with  the  sophistiy 
m  their  contrary  jargon,  where  nothing  endures,  but  ^  ia 
lumtivA  and  where  what  we  see  has  already  passed  away."  ^ 


taiiïBBlBKlJOTitscfie  Jahres  und  j.^^^-^^^^^^ 


■.'#  1  ^^tf^îpZ« 


^i.iJ  ;%-«;' 


J- 


"fe 


-0  t'>-%. 


'Ji^'l 


"^4 


288 


ORIGIN  OF  CEYSTALLINE  EOCKS. 


[XIII. 


By  far  the  greater  number  of  cases  on  which  this  gênerai 
theory  of  pseudomorphism  by  a  slow  process  of  altération  in 
minerais  has  been  based  are,  as  I  shall  endeavor  to  show,  ex- 
amples of  the  phenomenon  of  minerai  envelopment,  so  well 
studied  by  Delesse  in  his  essay  on  Pseudomorphs,*  and  may 
be  considered  under  two'   heads  :   first,  that   of  symmetrical 
.   envelopment,   in  which  one  minerai   species   is  so  enclosed 
within  the  other  that  the  two  appear  to  form  a  single  crystal- 
Hne  individual.     Examples  of  this  are  seen  when°pri8ms  of 
cyanite  are  surrounded  by  staurolite,  or  staurolite  crystalâ  ©om- 
pletely  enveloped  in  those  of  cyanite,  the  vertical  axes  of  the 
two  prisms  corrêspoi^ding.     Similar  cases  are  seen  in  the  en- 
cloaare  of  a  prism  of  red  in  an  envelope  of  green  tourmaline, 
of  allaiiite  in  epidote,  and  of  varions  minerais  of  the  pyrox- 
ene  group  in  one  another.     The  occurrence  of  muscovite  in 
lepidolite,  and  of  margarodite  in  lepidomelane,  or  the  inverse, 
are  well-known  examples,  and,  according  to  Scheerer,  the  crys- 
taUization  of  serpentine  arotfnd  a  nucleus  of  olivine  is  a  similar 
case.     This  phenomenon  of  symmetrical  envelopment,  as  re- 
marked  by  Delesse,  shows  itself  with  species  which  are  gener- 
ally  isomorphous  or  homœomorphous,  and  of  related  chemical 
composition.     AUied  to  this  is  the  repeated  alt«mation  of  crys- 
talline  laminae  of  related  species,  as  in  perthite,  the  crystalline 
cleavable  massesof  which  consist  of  thin,  altemating  layera  of 
orthoclase  and  albite. 

Very  unlike  to  the  above  are  those  cases  of  envelopment  in  ' 
^whîch  no  relations  of  crystalline  symmetry  nor  of  similar 
^fchemical  constitution  can  be  traced.     Examples  of  this  kind 
are  seen  in  gstrnet  crystals,  the   wallâ  of  which    ate   shells, 
sometimes  no  thicker  than  paper,  enclosing,  in  différent  exam- 
ples, crystalline  carbonate  of  lime,  epidote,  chlorite,  or  quartz. 
In  hke  manner,  crystalline  shells  of  leucite  enclose  feldspar, 
hoUow  prisms  of  tourmaline  are  filled  with  crystals  of  mica  or 
with  hydrouB  peroxide  of  iron,  and  crystals  of  béryl  with  a 
granukr  mixture  of  orthoclase  and  quartz,  holding  smaU  crys- 
tald  of  gamet  and  tourmaline,  a  composition  identical  with  the 
*  Ann*le»dM^Mln«r<g),  XVIr^f-Wfc -^ — -    ■ 


:^^^  '  'i^.^y; 


rf'^  ■ii\<.lBptv,\»J?ïl^^ii*.îv^u*î  Jfri     ^i-,h-<'^'>^ 


-«^-.«t.  1  hti  tii-^  ^ ivSx^k. 


xni.] 


ORIGIN  OP  CEYSTALLINE  BOCKS. 


289 


13  conceivable  in  free  orysm  fori^Ly^l  IL"  ^"T 
galenite,  zircon.  tounnaline,  béryl  and  IT'  '  T  T^^'' 
net,  but  is  not  so  intelliribk  ^  fu  /  f  ^"'P^''  °^  8^' 

i>edded  in  mica-scltt  Ttu^ed  W  SS  ''  *'T  f"  ^*«  ^"■ 
withiu  their  cryatalline  «hllT  ,  ""''  "^^'^  «^«^<>««d 

with  «orne  littlIÏÏiltt  S"  Sr  °'  "'^*^  ^"^'^^ 


tiw  rf^«2 


^^^^^^^  à^êié^iiiià^i^^l^^i 


./^Hv  ^' 


290 


ORIGIN  OF  CRTSTALLINE  ÏWCKS. 


pan. 


The  above  oharacteristic  examples  of  symmetrical  -and  asym- 
metrical envelopment  are  cited  from  a  great  nomber  of  others 
which  might  Jiave  been  mentioned.     Very  many  of  thèse  are 
by  the  pseudomorphists  regarded  as  résulte  of  partial  altéra- 
tion.    Thus,  in  the  case  of  associated  crystals  of  andalusite 
and  cyanite,  Bischof  does  not  hesitate  to  maintain  the  dériva- 
tion from  andalusite  of  the  latter  species  by  an  élimination  of 
quartz  ;  more  than  this,  as  the  andalusite  in  question  occurs  in 
a  granite-like  rock,  he  suggests  that  itself  is  a  pioduct  of  the 
altération  of  orthoclase.     Inlike  manner  the  mica,  which  in 
some  cases  coats  tourmaline,  and  in  others  fiUs  hollow  prisms 
of  this  minerai,  is  si^posed  to'  resuit  from  a  subséquent  altéra- 
tion of  crystallized  toiirmaline.     80  in  the  case  of  shells  of 
leucite  filled  with  feldspar,  or  of  gamet  enclosing  epidote,  or 
chlorite,  or  quartz,  a  similar  tpmsformation  of  the  interior  is 
supposed  to  bave  been  mysteriously  effected,  while  the  extemal 
portion  of  the  crystal  remains  intact.     Again,  the  aggregates 
of  cassiterile,  quartz,  and  orthoclase,  haying  the  form  of  the  lat- 
ter, are,  by  Bischof  and  his  school,  looked  upon  as  results  of  . 
a  partial  alteratiQn  of  previously  fonned  orthoclase  crystals. 
It  needed  only  to  extend  this  view  to  the  crystals  of  calcito 
enclosing  sand-grains,  and  regard  thèse  as  the  reeult  of  a  par- 
tial altération  of  the  carbonate  of  lime.     There  is  absolutely 
no  proof  that  thèse  hard  crystalline  substances  can  undergo  the 
changes  supposed,  or  can  be  absorbed  and  modified  like  the 
tissues  of  a  living  organism.    It  may,  moreover,  be  confidently 
affirmed  that  the  obvions  facts  of  envelopment  are  adéquate  to 
explain  ail  the  cases  of  association  npoa  which  this  hypothesis 
of  pseudomorphism  by  altération  has  been  baaed.    Why  the 
change  should  extend  to  some  parts  of  a  crystal  and  not  to 
others,  why  in  some  cases  the  exterior  of  th»  crystal  is  altered, 
while  in  others  the  centre  alone  is  removed  and  replaced  by  a 
différent  material,  are  questions  which  the  advocates  of  this 
ianciful  hypothesis'  hâve  not  explained.     As  taoght  by  Blum 
and  Bischof,  however,  thèse  views  of  the  altération  of  mineml 
species  hâve  not  only  been  generally  accepted,  but  hâve  formed 
the  basis  oi  the  generally  reoeived  theory  of  ^ock-metamo^ 
phism. 


"    ^ 


t£^  at'ï^*^  t  ïj^'i 


^ 


,l>  'i*'. 


"'  r 


-ff"-^*  w  'i^ 


xni] 


OBIOIN  OP  CEYSTALLINE  ROCKa 


291 


«n-orphou.  .pecic-T  sZ^uS  talsr^trj!^ 
*  Pogg.  Annd.,  LXvni.  81fl. 


T  «nwicii,  «snrmrôr  Solenoe  (2),  XVt  ffla 


éMèmn^shii^!^^ 


f 


292 


■^ 


*v 


ORIGIN  OF  CRYSTALLINB  EOCKS. 


[XIIL 


^    the  pseudomôrphifliQ  of  silkattes  like  feldapan  and  pyroxenes  pré- 
supposes tbe  existence  of  crystalline  rocks,  whose  génération  this 
neptunist  never  attempts  to  explain,  but  takes  his  8tarting-p<»nt 
,  ^        from  a  plutonic  basis." 

I  then  asserted  that  tfie  piroblem  to  be  solve<l  in  régional 
metaniQjrphism  is  the  conversion  of  sedinientary  etrata,  "  de- 
^  rived  by  chemical  and  meohanical  agencies  from  the  ocean- 

^  waters  and'pre-existing  crystalline,  rocks  into  aggregations  of 
crystalline  silicates.  Thèse  metamorphic  rocks,  once  formed^ 
are  liable  to  altération  only  by  local  and  superficial  agencies, 
and  |tre  not,  like  the  tissues  of  a  living  organism,  subject  to 
ince^nt  transformations,  the  pseudomorphism  of  Bischof."  * 

I  had  not,  at  that  time,  seen  the  essay  by  Delesse  on  Pseudo- 
moiphs,  already  referted  to,  published  in  1859,  in  which  he 
maintained  views  similar  to  those  set  forth  by  me  in  1853  and 
,    ,  1860,  declaring  that  much  of  what  had  been  regarded  as 

^udomoiphism  hM.  no  other  basis  than  the  observed  asso» 
ciations  of  minérale,  and  that  oftén  "the  430K^ed  metamop- 
phism  finds  its  natural  explanation  in  envelopment."  Thèse 
♦-  rieii^s  he  ably  and-ingeniously  defended  by  a  careful  discussion 

of  the  whole  range  pf  fiicts  belonging  to  the  history  of  the 
subject  v^ 

My  own  expression  of  opinion  oa  this  question,  in  1853, 
had  been  adversely  criticised,  and  I  had  been  chaiged  vith  a 
want  of  compréhension  of  the  question.  It  was,  theiefore, 
with  no  small  pleasui^,  that  I  not  only  saw  my  views  so  ably 
supported  by  Delesse,  but  lead  the  languf^e  of  Cari  Friedrich 
Kaumann,  who  in  1861  wrote  to  Delesse  as  follows,  referring 
to  his  essay  just  noticed  :  — 

"  You  hâve  rendered  a  véritable  service  to  science  in  restricting 
peeudomorphB  to  tbeir  true  Kmits,  and  separating  what  had  been 
•rroneously  united  to  them.  As  you  bave  remarked,  envelopments 
hâve,  for  tbe  most  part,  notbing  in  common  with  pseadomorphs, 
and  it  is  inconceivable  thatthey  hâve  been  united  by  bo  many  min- 
eralogists.and  geologists.  It  appears  to  me,  moreover,  that  they 
tonupit  an  aualogous  error,  whea  they  regard  gneiases,  amphibo- 

*  AmwtcMi  j;<Hi|n$l  of  gdeuce  (2),  X31X.  laa, 


^% 


i 


XIII] 


OBIGIN  OP  CRYSTAiiUNE  ROCKS. 


293 


It  w  unnecessaifWremark  tliat  the  view  of  Delesse  anH 

I  sought  to  M,pl,i„  the  phenomen.  in  ZZmC^Si^         '   ■ 

Later,  ml862,  IwroteasfoUows:--^  .   ..  > 

or  élément  pLtl^sr^:r  °' t^' '^^^^"^  «^  someélment 

oiïûp^'iS^=--^--rj5i:-.s 

aproce88iBa8yetanunprovedhypotheai8."t     '*'*'' "**^ ''^  «"pJ* 
r  Sl^.*?-  ^''  •*"  *^"*  (2),  XVIII.  67a 


*      ■': 


."X 


r...; 


•^    .: 


^i  -±j 


,1  • 


#^-- 


X  i 


.    -        f'-'-jrS 


^ 


294  ORIGIN  Qj?*câYSTALLINE  BOCKS.  [XIIL 

Thos  thia  unproved  theory  of  pseudomorphism,  as  tanght  by 
Bischof,  does  not,  even  if  admitted  to  its  fuUest  extent,  advance 
%8  a  wngle  stlf)  towards  a  solution  of  the  pioblem  of  the  origin 
of  the  various  silicates  ^hicB,  singly  or  intenninrfed,  make  up 
beds  in  the  ciystalline  schiits.  Granting,  for  the  sake  of  amu- 
rnent,  that  serpentine  results  from  the  altération  of  chrysolite  or 
labradorite,  and  steatite  or  chloritefioûi  hornblende,  the  origin 
of  thèse  anhydrous  sUicates,  which  are  W  subjects  of  the 
supposed  change,  is  still  unaccotinted  for.  The  explanation  of 
this  short-sightedness  is  not  fer'to  seek  ;  as  already  remarked, 
Bischof,  although  a  profeased  neptunist;  starta  fi^m  a  plutonic 
basia.  ) 

[The  notion  of  the  plutonic  origin  of  ciystalline  stratifieqL 
rocks  bas  in  fect  found  many  advocates,  as  may  be  seen  by 
référence-  to  pages  of  Naumann's  Lehrbuch  der  Geognosie. 
This  leamed  author  himself  speaks  of  them  as  "those  enig- 
matioal  deepeét-lying  rocks  which  reeemble  sedimentary  strata 
in  possessing  more  or  less  perfect  stratification,  while  resem- 
bling  eraptive  rocks  in  minerai  composition  and  ciystalline 
structure  "  (loe.  cit.,  VoL  IL  p.  8,  et  *eç.).    He  déclares  them  to 
be  neither  sedimentaiy  nor  eruptive  in  the  ordinary  sensé  of 
tlipse  terras  ;  and  evidently  leans  to  the  notion,  of  which  he 
speaks  with  favor,  that  they  are  in  some  way  the  first-soHdified 
portions  of  the  once  molten  globe.     He  elsewhere  says  that  the 
solidification  being  from  the  surface  downwards,  the  lowest  of 
thèse  rocks  must  be  the  newest,  except  so  far  as  eruptive  masses 
may  break  up  through  the  crust.     TcMtatchef,  from  his  récent 
researches  in  Asia  Minor,  holds  to  Naumann's  view  as  to  the 
pWtonic  origin  of  the  gneissio  rocks  of  that  région.    The  most 
récent  and  most  expUcit  statement  of  this  view  of  the  plutonic 
ongih  of  thèse  rocks  is  that  put  forth  by  Macfarlane,  in  a 
leamed  essay  on  The  Eruptive  and  Primary  Rocks,  in  the 
Canadian  Naturalist  for  1864.    He  conceives  that  the  structure 
m  thèse  rocks  may  bave  beeh  generated  by  currents  in  the 
molten  mass  of  the  globe  ;  and,  forther,  that  the  once-formed 
crust  may  hâve  had  a  différent  rate  of  rotation  fiom  the  liquid 
_below  ;  from  which  abo  vmnW  rfml%  ^  Btfnfiform 


^'ttlf  /ï'*- v"^^  ' "*  ^  .*'-*î*»*W'    •tù^iJX   }i/Ju-^^  ^. 


.  i&*r.ii  ^ùîà.'iï4^kl^^^cLî 


•'fc;: 


.f 


^«I-l  OBIGIN  OP  CEYSTALLINE  BOCKS.  295 

in  the  éléments  of  the  solidifyiM  lavera  «.^T,  o»  • 

ski?»  Anrï  in  «o-i  •  ^J'^ug  iayere,  sucù  as  is  seen  in  many 

8^,  and  in  certain  eruptive  rocks.   (AtUe  M^e.  1  «fi  \    a^7 

fied,  to  be  th«  «nhî^.    »    '°™^  Wh  etmtifled  and  unstniH- 

Th«  cysWline  rooka,  wbatev«..lheir  o^a»  S  S 

aS  t'XlttauT;.""""  "^  "'«^' 
diacordaDl  aeri»  a„d  Z  ^  °'  ft»"gaogno.tically 

>nH>  the  new  aireadyteflned  on  page  266  ]    ^^^^^^       " 


liLÀt^Xi      '  f^-.   ,' 


V 


t* 


296 


OEIOIN  OP  CRY8TALLINB  ROCKS. 


tXIIt 


Whence,  then,  corne  thèse  sUicates  of  magnesia,  lime,  and 
iron,  which  are  the  sources  of  the  serpentine,  chrysolite,  pyrox- 
ene,  hornblende,  steatite,  and  chlorite,  which  abound  in  thèse 
rocks  ?    Thia  is  the  question  which  J  proposed  in  1860,  when, 
after  dwcussing  the  résulta  of  my  examitations  of  the  tertiary 
rocks  near  Paris,  containing  layera  of  a  hydrous  silicate  of  mag- 
nesia, lelated  to  talc  in  composition,  among  unalterëd  Umestonee 
and  clays,  I  remarked  that  it  is  évident  -"  such  silicates  may  be 
fonned  in  basins  at  the  eartt's  surface,  by  reactions  between 
magnesian  solutions  and  dissolved  silica  "  ;  aûd,  after  some  dia- 
'  cussion,  said  "  further  inquiries  in  this  direction  may  show  to 
what  extent  certain  rocks  «omposed  of  calcareous  and  mag- 
nesian silicates  may  be  direcUy  formed  in  the  moist  way."* 
Subsequently,  in  a  paper  on  The  Origin  of  some  Magnesian 
and  Aluminous  Eocks,  prihted  in  the  Canadian  Naturalist  for 
June,  1860,t  I  repeated  thèse  considérations,- referring  to  the 
well-known  fact  that  siKcates  of  lime,  magnesia,  and  iron-oxide 
are  deposited  during  the  evaporation  of  natural  wateis,  indud- 
mg  those  of  alkaline  springs  and  of  the  Ottawa  River.    Having 
descnbed  the  mode  of  occurrence  of  the  magnesian  silicate 
sepiohte,  in  the  Paris  basin,  and  the  related  quincite,  containing 
some  iron  We,  and  disseminated  in  llmestone,  I  suggested  that 
while  steatite  has  been  derived  from  a  compound  like  sepioHte, 
the  source  of  serpentine  was  to  be  sought  in  another  siUcatê 
nchep  m  ma^esia;  and,  moreover,  that  chlorite  (unless  the 
lesult  of  a  subséquent  reaction  between  clay  and  carbonate  of 
magnesia)  was  directly  formed  by  a  process  analogous  to  that 
which  according  to  Scheerer,  has,  in  récent  times,  caused  the 
déposition  from  waters  of  neolite,-a  hydrous  alumino-mag- 
nesian  sihcate,  approaching  to  chlorite  in  composition,!  ''^e  / 
type  of  a  reaction  which  formeriy  generated  beda  of  chlorite  in 
the  Mme  way  as  those  of  sepiolite  or  talc."    Délasse,  suW 
quentiy,  in  1861,  in  his  easay  on  Metamorphiam,  insisted  upon 
tiie  sepiohte  or  80<îalled^,^gnesian  maria,  as  probably^^e 

t  Pogg-^MnaL,  LXXl.  288. 


.'-'î 


ï"    a'î*t^(i^M^'*'V«'^'7^^^'**i'"^f!^ 


N 


XIII.] 


OHIGIN   OF  CBYSTAlilNE  ROCKa 


297 


source  of  Bteatite,  and  BxuzBMt^^  +i.„  j    •    .. 

chlorite,and  othér  r.i:^l^.l' ^''^^''1^^"'''''' 
^m  depoHite  approaching  TC^L  it\''^^;"«  ««^iste, 
wcaUed,  also,  tbe  occurreLTT  ^^^  ««niposition.*  He 
companiment  of  the^mT^i!!  ^^.^'"r  °^>de,  a  fréquent  ac- 

in  France.    DeleJe  ^?  «ot  h         "^^^  '^'  "^««^  "^wl« 
the  origin  of  therdeplteof  r''"'  "'''''^'  ^  «^«"t  ^^ 

,       «Pfri"«-lubmtyof  smcateof  zntneTk  an^7     T.r  *'^ 
cate  of  8oda,  or  even  artilicial  hv!lT^'    ?  ''^  **•*'  «"i" 

ri8e,by  double  decomp^t^TÎT!  °' ''^P^''*^' gi^«« 

silicate.     (^„,e,  page  S)  ^''^  ""''  ^^^^^ 

To  explain  the  génération  of  silicates  like   th.  f  ,^       ' 
«capohte  gamet,  and  ^ussurite,  I  su^eld  tha    d    1î"^^' 
'    mipous  sUicates,  allied  tc^  J^m^  ""«gesieci  that  double  alu- 

^Htic  xnineml^I^ed  by  DauS  I;  Pl^Vf     ""?"  ""^ 
eu  ,  by  the-a^T.  nf  „    r    x  ,    „  ®'  ^"^  l'iombières  and  Lux- 

of  ancfent^^an  batbf  '"^'^^"^  "'^'«'  °»  *^«  "^«0-7 

tien.  iAntT^:^^r2oi;T^^  ''r'  ^'  ^^^ 

that  the  elemSs  of  the  2ii  weÏTdtï^j'"^ 

waters,  and  in  part  fromT»       Z  ^  '"^  P*^  ^^  the 

hricks,  which  had  beratttt  .     '^r.^'"^"  *^«  «^  «^  the 
hinationwith  the  sSle  taH    '  TJ"^  ^"*«'***  '"<»  «o»»- 
«te.     I.however,atthfsal1^e       ^^T'^^^^'^™^^^^ 
of  silicated  minelals.  „;rjh  r/hld      ^"?r'"""'^« 
«amely,  the  réaction  ietweLTuLtus  or       T""^  '^''  ^«^^' 
earthy  carbonates  in  the  ZeroflT^  '""""' "^^^^'^  «^"^ 
nïeK,u3  expérimenta  sho^rthat  L,       ,  ^  "^"**°°"-     N«- 
carbonate  we,.  heated  w"tt  TX^^  Tt"'  «f  atf  alkaline 
of  magnesia.  the  alkaline  sinL/f       /  ''^"^  ''"^  «^'^n^te 

yieldingaailicate^X^r^Jr     ""«'"r  ^^'^  '''"^'^     ' 
honate;  which  with^iT^!!    •      .^'"^™*"»*healkaIinecar- 
•EtnH-      ,«         '"'^'^^«««ïrf^thêlflfcaaiidthe 

^tude„„HeMetanK.n>hi«„e.q«arto.pp.91.P.H,,18ai.      , 


^ 


li^^à$A-i  tr  • 


Àin!Â.^A\lÊjktëi~>i<îi' ••t  •^.ti'k     ^.L^tMl^n 


ifi  A.-k 


-••■';-:-c|5>^^jr' 


29a 


ORlàlN  or  CHYSTALLINE  S/0CK3. 


[XITL 


\ 


magneei*  watfMected.   In  this  way  I  endearoied  to  explain  the 
altération,  in  the  vicinity  of  a  great  intnwive  mass  of.  dolerite, 
of  a  gtay  ptâàxnok  lûnestone,  which  contained,  beaide»  a  littlé 
carbonate  of  magnesia  and  ironH>xide,  a  portion  of  very  giUcioiw 
matter,  consisting  apparently  of  comminuted  orthoclase  and 
quartz.    In  place  of  thùj,  theiô  had  been  developed  in  thé  lime- 
stone,  near  its  contact  with  the  dolerite,  an  amorphoua  greenish 
basic  silicate,  which  had  seemingly  resulied  fiom  the  union  of 
the  silica  and  alumina  with  the  iion-oxide,  the  magnesia,  and  a 
portion  of  lime.     By  the  crystaffiation  of  the  producta  thua 
generated,  it  waa  conceived  that  mineiak  like  hornblende, 
garnet,  and  epidpte  ibight  be  developed  in  earthy  aedimenta, 
and  many  caaea  of  local  altération  explained.     Inaamuch  aa  the 
reaction  described  required  th?  intervention  of  alkaline  aolu- 
tiona,  rocks  fix)m  which  thèse  were  exduded  would  escape 
change,  although  the  other  conditions  might  not  be  wanting 
The  natural  associations  of  minerais,  moréover,  led  me  to  sug- 
gest  that  alkaline  solutions  might  favor  the  crystalliiation  of 
aluminous  sUi^tes,  and  thus  convert  mechanical  sédiments  into 
gneissesandaiica-achiats.    The  ingénions  experibents  of  Dau- 
brée  on  the  part  which  solutions  of  alkaline  sUicates,  at  elo- 
vated  températures,  may  phy  in  the  formation    •>  crystallized 
minerais,  such  as  feldspar  and  pyroxene,  were  poaterior  to  my 
early  publications  oti  the  subject,  and  fully  justified  the  im- 
portance which,  early  in  1857,  I  attributed  to  the  intervention 
of  alkaline  silicates,  in  the  formation  of  crystalline  silicated 
^^r-minerals.*    (Antt,  pages  6  and  26.) 

[  Whilô  we  may  not  question  the  régénération  of  feldspars 
and  zeohtes  (which  are  but  hydiated  feldsdars)  by  the  combina- 
tion  of  siUcates  of  alumina,  like  clay,  with  soluble  alkaline  or 
calcareous  sUioates,  it  îs  évident  that  this  proceas  ia  not  the 
chief  nor  tke  primary  one;  sînoe  the  existence  of  cUy  sup- 
poses the  previous  existence  and  decay  of  feldapars.  The  dep- 
osition  of  immense  quantities,  alike  of  orthoclaae,  albite,  and 
oligodase  in  veim.  which  are  evidenlly  of  aqueous  origin,  shows 
that  conditions  hâve  existed  in  wliich  the  éléments  of  thèse 
*  Ptoc  Boyl  Soc..  I^ay  7. 1867. 


'^.L^St^'V        ■ 


•U!. 


1 1;  !<«.      ,.  •>«  ^   ,.■  •  ' 


\j 


xni.] 


OBIOIK  OF  CByItaLUNB  E0CK8. 


299 


thèse  latter  mineml  species  Z/     V^'   '^"*"*'°^  ^^  ^^ich 

m  more  recebt  time  only  b/th! ^^  .  ^^' "^ '"P'^°*«d 
^nenUs.  See  in  tins  Znlt^n  S^'"'' '^ '^  ^"^  "^^'^ 
««PecialJy  §§  30.  S^and  49  J         P'^^'^°i'^«^  i^m,  but 

^^iori^iSUt^i^J^^^^    *^  ^«-e  tbat  solu- 
ageBts  in  the  c,ysS^^t.n  J'IT^,  '^^^  ^«^  ««-«* 
ancient  eediments,  and  hâve  lo  ^^!?^^'««"^«ement  of 
thit  local  altération  of  ^tl^   ^^^  "''  ^^P^'^'^*  P^^  in  ' 
-ed  in  the  vioinitylfll^^^^^^,  ^^f  ^,  ^f^n  ol. 
the  agency  of  thèse  solutions  is  1 JT    •      ^^^^  *°  "»«  *^t 
P««d  by  Daubrée  and  Slf  a^^    TT^  *^'^'^^"««  «"P" 
formation  of  varions  sili<Sl  Itf  J^  ^''  ~^'^'  ^^^  t^é 
achiste,  Buch  as  8erDeMin«   l     ït  ^^«»«^°«  <«  the  crystalline 
When  I  commenc^'";d;^^^^^^       ^'"^^  and  chlorite 
led,  in  accordanco  with  the  Z^.  ''^"'^^'  '*'**"  ^  ^ 

of  geologists,  to  regarf  tLt^^  "T"''^  "^^^  oP""on 
altération  of  palœoSc  se^Ll^  T^^  ^"*  '^  «"^««l"«»t 
authoritiea,    were  of   Cb^„;  J^^^' '^«^'^^  *«  différent      - 

ThusintheAppalachiaXC'^w^^^^^^  "]  ""r"'^  '^«• 

hav^on  supposed  stn^ti^^d  JmIT  t^T^^ -«»'  *% 

.  plaèed  at  the  base  a*  ./^   P""*^.  «vidence,  been  s^iccessivelv 

i^l.   e«Mfaatio„  .moi;  ttru^te^*™^   ^^arafal  d,em- 
»WohmCaii»l.„eK,lZlrT  •''''~""'  «edimoiito, 

-«.ta  of  the  trSt^r.miÏT'^'ir'*'»'  «^"i- 
«hW»,  diowed  me,  howewT^T         ^  "  ""«  «■y'Wlin. 


«.-^.«^j^ssrtriss 


■J^a.'îA^»'. 


•.-^A&.'A-^-i.  <ii,CiV«K* 


*. 


♦  300 


OBIGIN  OF  CSYSTALtlNE  BOCKB. 


(XIIL 


of  rmctions  which  I  had  observed  to  take  place  in  such  admix- 
tures  in  présence  of  heated  alkaline  solutions,  and  from  the 
.composition  of  the  basio  silicates  which  I  had  found  to  be 
formed  in  silièious  limestones  near  their  contact  with  eruptive 
rocks,  I  was  led  to  suppose  that  similar  actions,  on  a  grand 
Bcale,  might  transform  thèse  silicious  dolomites  of  the  unaltered 
strata  into  crystalline  magnesian  silicates. 

"Further  researches,  however,  convinced  me  that  this  view 
was  inapplicable  to  the  crystalline  schists  of  the  Appalachians, 
since,  apart  from  the  geognostical  considérations  set  forth  in 
the  previous  part  of  this  paper,  I  found  that  thèse  same  crys- 
talline strata  hold  beAs  of  quartzose  dolomite  and  magnesian 
carbonate,  associated  in  such  intimate  rektions  with'  beds  of 
serpentine,  diallage,  and  àteatite,  as  to  forbid  the  notion  that 
thèse  silicates  cquld  hâve  been  generated  by  any  transforma- 
tions or  chemical  rearrangement  of  mixtures  like  the  accom- 
panying  beds  of  quartzose  magnesian  carbonates.     Hence  it 
was  that  already,  in  1860,  w  shown  above,  I  announced  my 
conclusion  that  serpentine,  chlorite,  and  steatite  had  been  de- 
rived  from  silicates  like  sepiolite,  directly  formed  in  waters  at 
the  earth's  surface,  and  that  the  crystalline  schists  had  resulted 
from  the  consolidation  of  previously  formed  sédiments,  partly 
chemical  and  partly  mechanical  in  their  origin.     Thô  latter 
being  chiefly  silico-aluminous,  took,  in  part,  the  forms  of  gneiss 
and  mica-schists,  while  from  the  more  argiUaceous  strata,  poorer 
in  alkali,  much  of  the  aluminous  silicate  crystallized  as  anda- 
lusite,  staurolite,  cyanite,  and  gamet.     Thèse  views  were  reit- 
erated  in  1863,*  and  further  in   1864,  in  the  following  lan- 
guage,  as  reg^ds  the  chemically  formed  sédiments  :  "  Steatite, 
serpentine,  pyroxene,  hornblende,  and  in  many  cases  gamet, 
epidote,  and  other  silicated  minerais,  are  formed  by  a  crystalli- 
zation  and  molecular  rearrangement  of  silicates  generated  by 
chemical  processes  in  watera  at  the  earth's  surface."  t    Their 
altération  and  orystallization  was  compated  to  that  of  the 


•  Oeology  of  Canada,  pp.  677  -  581. 
f  American  Jonmal  of  Scimce  (2),  : 


XXX  VIL  188^ 


^J"W«B'**.    *     '^'q*»^f^*ç   •  ^i^ï«  ,»*-'vV    .  ^m^    1^    *f 


%■■ 


'«II-l  OBIGIN  OF  CBYSTAlimE  ROCKS.  801 

mechanicâUy  formed    feldspathic,  siliciou»,  and  amllaceou. 

The  direct  fomation  of  the  crystalline  gohiats  from  an 
aqueous  naagma  ia  a  notion  wticfe  ionga  to  an  IwZZ 
^geolo^caltheory.  ^^l^^l^^  ooné.ZllTZt 
were  throwu  down  aa  i  lu  uni    ilWiiffiitiii      ^l  ^ 

heat^  océan,  af^ritl'S^PÊ^;^^^^^^^ 
globe,  and  befbre  the  ^^pZM^^^  ^t^^"» 
was  levived  by  Daubrée ITlsèJ^K  aoulht  ^       T^ 
the  alte^tion  of  paI.ozoic  st^talS^^^t^  Tt 
action  of  heated  waters,  he  proceeds  to  discuaa  thTririn  of 

sou^d  theory  teaches^with  regard  to  the  chemistry  ofTc^^« 

t^  te  :i^r;''  ""'"*^'  ^'^  geognStical  dS 
nés.      ihe  pre-Cambnan  «ryataljine  rocks  belonc  to  two  or 

more  dastanct  systema  of  différent  âges,  8uccM^|  1^." 
m  discordât  stratification.     The  whcde  hisCof  th^K 

^Ztr  ^'^.^'.^^^r-  altemating^trataTTd; 
poBit«d,  not  as  precipitates  fix,ni  a  aeething  solution,  but  under 

urnes.     In  the  oldest  known  of  them,  the  Laurentian  System 

o'^^'^r  ^°'"''*«°-'  •«  interstratified  with  ^eÏÏe^'   ■ 
quartzites,  and  even  with  conglomérâtes.    AU  analo^Z^ 

easted  at  the  surface  of  the  planet.     Great  accumidationi  of 

inese  oldest  strata,  and  we  know  of  no  other  agency  thtfn  that 
^mcmatter  capable  of  generating  thèse  p^ucLT^m 
i^esence  of  graphite,  of  native  iK,n,  and  of  sdphurets  ii  most 


f 


^^>^»>..=^;^^„^^,  ^  „,,^ 


y 


•^  iS.  ^    \i 


■'  ,   .éf  t,  ''^'  .  ^it   , , 


!■> 


/"  n 


h 


302 


ORIGIN   OF  CEYSTALLINE  EOCKS. 


[XIIL 


afiroUtes,  npt  to  mention  the  hydrocarbonaceous  matters  which 
they  sometimes  contain,  tells  us  in  unmistakable  knguage  that 
thèse  bodies  corne  from  a  région  where  vegetable  life  haa  per- 
fomed  a  part  not  imlike  that  which  still  pkys  on  our  globe, 
and  even  leads  us^-to  hope  for  the  discovery  in  them  of  oi-ganic 
fonns  which  may  give  us  some  notion  of  life  in  other  worlda 
than  our  own."  *] 

Bischof  had  abeady  amved  at  the  conclusion,  which  in  the 
présent  state  of  our  knowledge  seema  inévitable,  that  "  ail  the 
'Carbon  yet  known  to  occur  in  a  free  state  can  only  be  regarded 
as  a  product  of  the  décomposition  of  carbonic  acid,  and  as 
derived  from  the  vegeteble  kingdom."    He  fyrther  adds,  "liv- 
ing  plants   décompose   carbonic   acid,   dead    organic  mattera 
décompose  sulphates,  so  that,  like  carbon,  sulphur  appears  to 
owe  its  existence  in  a  free  etate  to  the  organic  kingdom."  t    As 
a  décomposition  (deoxidation)  of  sulphates  is  necessary  to  the 
production  of  metaUic  sulphides,  the  présence  of  the  latter,  not 
less  than  that  of  free  sulphur  and  free  carbon,  dépends  on 
orgamc  bodies;  the  part  which  thèse  play  in  reducing  and 
rendering  soluble  the  peroxide  of  iron,  and  in  the  production 
of  iron-ores,  is,  moreover,  weU  known.     It  was,  therefore,  that, 
after  a  careful  study  of  thèse  ancient  rocks,  I  declared  in  May 
1858,  that  a  great  mass  of  évidence  «points  to  the  existence 
of  oivamc  life^even  during  the  Laurentian  or  soKiaUed  azoic  -^ 
penoa."J  ^  c 

This  prédiction  was  soon  vèrified  in  the  discovery  of  the 
Eozooit  Canad^^e.  of  Dawson,  tib  organic  chaiacter  of  which 
18  now  admitted  by  most  zoologists  and  geologists  of  authority.  *' 
But  with  this  discovery  appeared  another  fact,  wluch  afforded 
a  signal  vérification  of  my  theory  as  to  the  origin  and  mode  of  > 
déposition  of  serpentine  and  pyroxena  The  micrescopic  and 
Chemical  researches  of  Dawson  and  myself  showed  that  the 
calcareous  skeletof  of  this  foraminiferal  oiganism  was  filled 


+  Bischof,  Li^buch,  Ist  éd.,  II.  Wj  Bngltoh  «4,  I.  362,  844. 
î  American  Journal  of  Science  (2),  XJCV.  438. 


T 


*% 


V 


^mj  OWGIN  OF  CRYSTALLINE  BOCKa  303 

with  the  one  or  the  other  of  thèse  siUcatea  in  «,,„!, 

thèse  ftet.  w„  Uher  illLt^M™ehowThS'='r  "• 
Berthiei,  a  tn.e  aerpentme  «  *'  '^'^  to 

«le,„ent./„rt  ltû,lZ" '°S  "'  '™°"''  ""<' 
cation  t,  .he  GeCogieal  8;cte^Ti„ndon  ^  'Zr""^ 
speedjy  rerilied  br  Dr    Odmtil      """'"'•^      "«7  were 

in  the  «,  „,  the'a„^:„.!:^^L:thirof"'Z  "^1 
800Î1  recognized  the  existenri,   in  T  v  Pavana,  and 

Hercynian  pieisa  of  ttr  ^  .  '  ^«'estones  of  the  old 
injecrd  with'^mciat      in  1  ^fare^™"''.  f ^  ^«-^'' 

Hoffmann  described  the  «suTrofL  f\'"  ^^^'  ^"^''* 
tien  of  the  Eozoon  frorC^L^Tlf  ^^"'  ^r^" 
the  previous  observations  in  6^1  Ind  ^  ""'  ^'^^^^ 
that  the  calcar^ous  sheU  of  thT^îv."  '^*"*:  ^'  '^°^«*^ 
had  been  iniected  bvTr!  r  ^^°'  ^''""^"^  ^^  l^"»» 
«cribed  as  Satd  in^l^"'"  î"  f  ""*''  '^^^«^  "«^^  ^  ^^ 
.  A».H       r  r  ^*"P^^*'«"  ^'«th  to  glauconite  and  to 

ez!  ^'''^"  ^-n>^of  Science  (2).  Xximi\-;  Q.„.  ««.,.  Jonr.,  XXI 

^t  F^.  I^yal  W.  Acd.  fo,  1866 ,  and  C».  N,t„n.,.V,  ^..h,^,^ 


»ii<>^i.« 


.J«« 


304 


ORIGIN   OF  CRYSTALLINE   BOCKS. 


[XTII. 


V 


chlorite.  The  masses  of  Eozoon  he  found  to  be  enclosed  and 
wrapped  around  by  thin  altemating  layers  of  a  greeninag- 
nesian  silicate  allied  to  picrosmine,  and  a  brown  non-magnesian 
minerai,  which  proved  to  be  a  hydrous  silicate  of  alumina, 
ferrons  oxide  and  alkalies,  related  to  fahlunite,  or  more  nearly 
to  jolly te  in  composition,* 

Still  more  çpcently,  Dr.  Dawson  bas  detected  a  crystalline 
silicated  minerai  insoluble  in  dilate  acids,  iiyecting  the  pores 
of  crinoidal  stems  and  plates  in  a  palœozoic  limestone  from 
New  Brunswick,  which  is  made  up  of  organic  remains.  This 
silicate,  which,  in  decalcified  spécimens,  exhibits  in  a  beautiful 
mànner  the  intimate  structure  of  thèse  ancient  crinoids,  I  bave 
found  by  analysis  to  be  a  h/drous  silicate  of  alumina  and 
ferrons  oxide,  with  magnesia  and  alkalies,  closely  related  to 
fahlunite  and  to  jollyté.  The  microscopic  examinations  of  Dr, 
Dawson  show  that  this  silicate  had  injected  the  pores  of  the 
crinoidal  remadns  and  some  of  the  interstices  of  the  associated 
shell  fragments  before  the  introduction  of  the  calcite  which 
céments  the  mass,  I  bave  since  found  a  silicate  almost  identi- 
cal  with  this  occurring  unftfcr  similar  conditions  in  a  Silurian 
limestone  said  to  be  from  Uangwyllog  in  Anglesea.t 

Gûmbel,  meanwhile,  in  the  ess^y  on  the  Laurentian  rocks  of  ' 
Bavaria,  in  1866,  already  referred  to,  fully  rècognized  the  truth 
of  the  views  which  I  had  put  forward,  both  with  regard  to  the 
mineralogy  of  Eozoon  and  to  the  origin  of  the  crystalline 
schists.  His  results  are  still  further  detailed  in  bis  Geognost. 
Beschreibung  des  ostbtyerisches  Grenzegebirges,  1868,  p,  833. 
Credneiy  moreôver,  as  'he  teUs  us,J  had  already,  from  his  min- 
eralogical  and  lithological  studies,  been  led  to  admit  my  views 
as  to  the  original  formation  of  serpentine,  pyroxene,  and  sim- 
ilar silicates  (which  he  cites  from  my  paper  of  1865,  above 

referred  to  §),  when  he  found  that  Gûmbel  had  arrived  at 
r 

•  Jour  fur.  Prakt  Chem.,  Msy,  1889  i  and  American  Journal  of  Scienca 
(3),  1.378,  •  *^ 

+  American  Journal  of  Science  (3),  I.  379,  and  II.  67. 

Î.Hermann  Credner;  die  Oleiderong  der  Eozoischen  Formationsgruppe 
Iford  Aroer&as.    Halle,  1869, 

§  That  in  the  Quar.  Geol.  Jour,,  XXI,  67, 


1  '  ' 


XIII.] 


ORIGIN  OP  CRYSTALUNE  ROCKS. 


305 


e«,  hâve  ail  th'e  chal:^^  5  Z^d  ^li"*^^^^^         ^^^- 
andfrom  their  mode  of  n..,       ^        «edimentary  deposits, 

^n.  nor  the  rearïf    pi    racTor  it  "^Z  T^""  ^^' 
sediments  are  conceived  to  LTI  ''"^"^^^  ^°"°«d 

-odeiate  beat  and  plJe  tt Tv         '"'"f^""'  '^  ^^^^^ 

^  a  change,  which.  to  dXgJ^L"  t  1^2^"  ^'t-  "^'^' 
an  epigenic  process,  Gumbel  ha^y  diSnar^"'^^^^^^  '^ 

rKî^""""^^^^  ;~™  »^.-yby^e  author  In  the  Report 

§33:  "The  gnulual  tmnsformatirn  nf  u       ^«""«t'-.V  of  the  Earth 

'•epend  upon  P^!^VZT ^^^^f:^^  '\')l  '"«-«tory,  ap^^t 
not  be  entirely  insoluble  in  tL  suniu^l"  ^J  '^^  '°'t»«"'".  ^hich  mn^t 

th«  be  reduced.  the  diMoIve^'™"^^  «   T      /I''^  '^'^•'"*  l^-«'^f 
rather  than  othere.    Bv  a  snhVLr  *        .       ^"P^"^^  o»  certain  p«rticl«, 

%uid^sol„tio„  of  a^LVe^tX^ta^ittr'  ?\~'^«"*  ^^^-^^^ 
Posited  around  the  nuclei  aireadv  fnZl^  ^^^  '•  '"'^  *''*?'  '"  '*«  #«  i»  de 

eïrt^''' !r  ^' P»'*^^  u^rtie^tn^h  d^^^^ 

«  *  *'°  .^M'ytaJJine  centres.     Such  a  ™!1  ?*•"  disappear,  being  gath- 

l^r'T'''^'"''  """*«'  *•>«  influence  orT-H""*  '""  '^"  «*»'"«^V 
«fasons,  to  couvert  many  fine  pmsinlL^       ^    '''""^"»  température  of  the 
«d  Of  liqui^is  of  slight  loCT^iZ      rl7'^''''''  -•«•-«-*«•.  bThe 
to  hâve  effected  the  crystallization  «f^  ij     ^^'""  '««"'«'y  may  be  supposed 
solvent  Power  of  the  permeS  Itir    ''tl  f^'"™^'  """^  ch«,ges  K 
tempenitnreorofpressureT^^.r        ""^''*  *^*^"''  "^her  to  variatiol  „f 
union  of  hete„.ge,'er TemenrJ^ZÏ^  "^'^  *''."  ''"'*"'•«  one"o't*  ^ 
"'«y  suppose  the  carbonate  ofïZ*'   T  ""^  '"  "''"  ^«y.  f»' example  to 
dolomite  or  magneaian  Hm^tonO  ""*"""  '^'"•'  ""'*«^  «^  '^ 

vaï  letS  r  "oVmtr  foï  '''  ^"^^  ^'^  ^  "ave  ^i.«,  ,„  .  ,, 
''%inofcrystalli„e^l!^%'tivTl '*■''*"**•"•'"*  "' ï'"  views  J  to  îhe" 

«...w  u,  more  récent  période  j  theM 


XièkSî!.:'».  J 


>«l'iââ^Wdtl^i^^!.ûÙl  '  a  ^^-'^-^X'^j^jr^f^ita.-^  J^^    >       .»t^^  J.  '  f 


..L'- 


306 


ORIGIX  OF  CBTSTALLINE  EOCKS. 


[xnL 


At  the  eaiiy  periods  in  which  the  materials  of  the  ancient 
ciystalline  schists  were  accumulated,.  it  cannot  be  doubted  ihat 
the  chemical  processes  which  genetated  silicates  were  much 
more  active  than  in  more  récent  tunes.    The  heat  qf  the  éarth's 
crust  was  probably  then  fer  greater  than  at  présent,  while.  a 
high  température  prevailed  at  cômparatively  small  depths,  and 
thermal  waters  abounded.     A  denser  atmosphère,  chaiged  with 
carbonic-acid  gas,  must  also  hâve  contributed  to  maintaiu,  at 
the  earth's  sorfece,  a  greatér  d^ree  of  heat,  though  one  not 
incompatible^^th  the  existence  of  organic  Hfe.     (Ante,  j»ge 
46.)      Thèse   conditions  must  bave  fevored  many   chemical 
processes,  "jfihich,  in  later  times,  hâve  nearly  ceased  to  operate.>« 
Hence  we  find  thaï  subsequently  to  the  eozoic  times,  silicated 
rocks  of  clearly   marked   chemical  origin  are   cômparatively 
rare.      In  the  mechanical  sédiments  of  later  periods  certain 
crystalline  minerais  may  be  developed  by  a  process  of  mo- 
lec'iUar  reamingement,  —  diagenesis.     Thèse  are,  in  the  feld- 
spathic  an^aluminous,  sédiments,  orthoclase,  muscovite,  garnet, 
statHPolite,  cyanite,  and  chiastolite,  and  in  the  more  basic  sédi- 
ments, homblendic  minerais.     It  is  possible  that  thèse  latter 
and  similar  silicates  may  sometimes  be  generated  by  reactions 
between  silica  on  the  one  hand  and  carbonatep  aijd  ôxides  on 
the  othèr,  as  already  pointed  out  in  some  cases  of  local  altéra- 
tion.    Such  a  case  may  apply  to  more  or  less  homblendic 
gneisses,  for  example,  but  no  sédiments,  not  of  direct  chemical 
origin,  are  pure  enough  to  hâve  given  rise  to  the  gre«t  beds  of 
serpentine,  pyroxene,  steatite,  labradorite,  etc.,  which  abound 
in  the  ancient  crystalline  schists.     Thus,  while  the  materials 

wei*  onee  pastes,  magmM  or  jmids,  and  so  were  the  primitive  rocks  at  the 
time  of  thehr  origin,  but  during  thèse  flrst  âges  of  the  earth  the  consolidating 
and  ciystallizing  forces  (diifering  in  degree  only  from  those  of  the  présent 
time,  and  aided  by  a  higher  température)  allowed  the  magma  to  assnme  the 
fomi  of  minerai  species,  more  or  less  distinct.  If  we  chôme  to  call  thi» 
change  metamorphism,  then  the  rocks  thos  fornrad  are  metamorphic;  but  so 
also  are  the  limestones  of  later  periods.  The  primitive  rocks  originç^ed^by 
way  of  sédimentation,  the  one  after  the  other,,  eonstitnting  diiitinet  forma- 
tions, and  there  are  no  eniptive  gneisste."  See,  in  this  connection,  the  Intro- 
duction to  Essay  ITT.  of  the  présent  volame,  and  the  statements  of  Favre  in 
tbe  Appendix  to  Bsny  XIV.] 


k.  tàiiA^hi  âiit^«tjSitff ^du 


1.  '     ^^     •     ' 


k^iV^i-u^  u^u^!^': 


^^'  -if,}.-    ^  -V        •»!« 


't- 


XIII.] 


OEIOIN  OF  CEY3TALLINB  BOCKS. 


307- 


sedimentary  depoàits.]  '         *^®*®  "^^^e  ^«ent  • 

dotait.,  are  of  ÏÏ^ll  ™f^T.  '  T"  "'  "^»W«-" 

o'  -t»^àr::î'^.ii'";t\rsi°'  ■  7'^  '""^  ^"» 

»puMi.h6d  by  me  m  1869  ,„Tf  ïû         ^  °'  «W«™  "««> 


s:} 


.'4«;'f  ' 


&'à^iâi)w#^ 


.-,.V 


^'t* 


m 


me 


'mi 

of  tr       ' 


uan 


308    .  -^^R^IN  OF  CBTi^l'ALLINH^paKS. 

"  hydrous*  carbonate  elowly  aepnl|||B  ;  BeSm^v  thé  '« 
^,¥çarb6nate  of  iime  in  8olntioj|^,,^i«iuch/tïiyb^||dp^^    of  ma^ 
*-*nia,  gires  lise  to  gyp8unii,ti^^fir8t,cry8kïi^^â^^ 

a  much  Jjsaore  soluble  biëàjrbpnate  of  Hi(ig^a^'i|rHid£ 
lits  ;thé.  jbydnms  4^bonàte  in  its  tum.     ïn  t^  ^^M6r 
i359i.^e  origi|ï;(if  gypsuim  apcïm^itttiv 
ifmdnes  were  explaiiiedi*^*.,"^ 
tb  the  perfect  opération  of  this 
àcid  in  the  solution  duyipg  the 
'JjpJ  prevent  the  decomposing-  action 
tu|  .î(^c>n(j2(^ifl)èlijite  of  nîagnesia  upon  the  al|eady' 
.  ^„       '•  ,  l^aVing  fdund  that  a  prolonged  exposrt^  to 

tiie  f>ir|4y  pénnjlling  the  loss  of  carbonic  acid,  partially  ti^er- 
fered  ,^h  the  piocess,  I  was  led  torepeat  the  experiment  fh  a 
corjjfin^  Mmosphere,  cîarged.witjh  carbonic  acid,  but  rendeijid 
4rying  hf^he  présence  of  a  layer  of  desiccated  chloride  of  éâ- 
eiuya.    As  had  been  foresèeii,  the  process  under  thesie  conditicms 
•rôçeeded  unintemiptedly,  .pdre  gypstun  first  crystallizing  oit 
Jrom  the  liquid,  and,  8ub$equently,  the    hjdrous  ^magnesian 
qirbonate.f     This  experiment  is  instructive,  as  showing  tho 
.  Wsults  which  must  hâve  attepded  this.  process  jn  past  âges; 
TVhen  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acià  in  the  atmosphère  greatly 
\^xceeded  its  présent  amount.,.   (Ante,  pages  43,  47,  and  91.) 

As  r^ards  the  hypothèses  put  forward  to  explain  the  supposed 
doloçaitization  of  previously  formed  limestones  by  an  epigenio 
'^jçocess,  I  may  remark  that  I  repeated  very  many  times,  under 
.Varying  conditions,  the  often-cited  experiment  of  Von  Morïot, 
vi^ho  claimed  to  hâve  generated  dolomite  by,  the  action  of  sul- 
phate  of  magnesia  on  carbonate  of  lime,  in  the  présence  of  ,wa 
at  a  somewhat  elévated  température  under  pressure.  I  8h( 
that  what  he  regarded  as  dolomite  was  not  such,  but  ah  a 
ure  of  carbonate  pf  lime  .with  anhydtous  anîi  sparii 
carbonate  of  magne8i^|nLe  conditions  in  which  -tl 
of  magnesia  is  liberâ|flB  this  réaction  not  being 
its.  union  wi|ih  the  ^iSonate  o^  lime  to  form  the 

*  ^'^^^  récent  tencloaions  of  Ransaf,  noticed  €mte,  page  92.  '^ 


w- 


^^à^klL'=MM^aà^^',^é^Ùi^^^^d^^:0t  ,w^'  '.. 


.iMàè^iMi 


>H:* 


Jtlïl.] 


ORIGIN  OP  CBYSTALLINK  BOCKS. 


309 


•eJt^^^icûconstitutes  dolomite     TK«  «        •  «• 

„^'4  thought  to  fonn  doJortl  by  sutr^r'"'"*  «f  Mangn^  who 
/of  magnésium  for  the^lhL  j  ^o    "."f  '  '?*^^°  «^«^-d^ 
JV     theg^rpartofthe::^^ 
,^^ .    once  into  the^  i^oluble  Slion  wi^  ^     u"*^  ^^^^^  ** 

duction  of  ihe  double  carhnw^       •.      P"*^"  ^«•'  t^e  pro- 

.       «amely,  the  action  of  ~f  ^'^^  ^^  ^'^^^-  ^evfue,^ 

-       on  heated  carbonate  oflC  L  l^^''"'  ""^"^'^"  ^"«^de 

«t^nge  tàeory  of  dolomittlion,  ïïavt n"^  tif  b^  ^"^^'« 

to  submit  to  the  test  of  exDeriU,»?  "^^^  necessary 

quired  ai«  scarcely^ce  vT  '  '""'"  *^«  condition^  re- 

tical  observation  :ho:ttt, S  Tr     f"'"^^^^  ^-^-- 
duction  of  dolomite  Jm  W  ""  "^  *^'  «P^S«^«  p'^o- 

-aolution  and  depost^Tn   n  v^"'  "  -*«-*»  altbough'ita 

gypsums  at  varions  g^"J";it"  """f  *"  '^"^^  ^^^^ 
abundant  and  -idelySbld  ^^jf  :he'  ""l"'  ''^  """^ 
are  not  assotiated  witb  deoeZ  nf-  '*"'"  ^"^^'  ^^i'^»^ 

of  the  fitst  clàss  is  depend^fll^T"     ^^^  P-^-^on 
Phate  of  magnesia  hy  SIVTk      .^'""'^P"«^^^^    «^  ««I- 
those  of  theLnd  cLs  ]t  L       ■"'•^°***  «^  ^^">«'  -h"e 
of  magnesian  chloride  orTllt  b  T  !?  *'^  ^«--Po-tion , 
cartonates.     I„  both  «L  K  ^  '^^"*'°"«  '^^  «^^^««ne  bi- 

.,  -^a-hichtheca:Lr;X^2pat''";'^^^^ 

\niore  or  less  mpaj^^^^^M^S,^^^  contam,  contributes 

«edimente.  Th^^Sed  alkaiC^S'^  f  T'^'^'"^ 
,'8pnng8oflenophtain  as  i«  w«ll  t^^V^  "  °^  deep-seated 
of  soda,  ihn^2Z^^'""'''^r^  '^'  bicarbonates 
and  many  of  tîe  mTm"^ tTo^t  ''^'j^  -^«g-ne^  '^ 
liferoui  character  of  ma^v V^ti  h  f  "ï '  ^'^^^''^  *»»«  ^ 
is  ej^ained.    The  simulL  °'*'°''*^  ^^  ^«  eecond^lass 

^ns«chmiheJ::Ctr;^rrr£  ' 

^  the^rod,iction  of  iqpl^^e^^S  ^  ^^^«%ointed  on^  :,_^ 


# 


<^'^'   '^^^    ' 


*N 


"j\"^7  ' 


r 


t'^^A\ 


% 


310 


OHiaiN  OF  CBTSTALUNE  BOÔKa 


[XIIL 


l-^  ' 


magneaian  cpbonatea'iu  the  ciystalline  schUta  fo  explained,  as 
œarking  poj^ions  of  one  contmuous.process.    The  formation  of 
■fchese  minerai  waters  dépends  upoJ  the  décomposition  of  féld- 
spathic  rocks  by  subterranean  or  sublaerial  proceaaes,  which  \rere 
dpubtiess  more  active  in  fonner  âges  than  in  our  own.     The 
subséquent  action  upon  magnesian  waters  of  thèse  bicarbonated 
solutions,  whether  alkaline  or  not,  is  dépendent  upon  cUmatic 
conditions;  since,  in  a  région  where  the  lain-faU  is  abundant 
such  waters  would  find  «leir  way  down  the  river-co^s  to  thé 
open  sea,  where  the  excesa  tjf  dissolved  sulphate  of  Kme  would 
prevent  the  depositipn  of  magnesian  carbonate.^  It  is  in  diy 
and;  désert  regioni,  with  closed  lake  or  sea  basins,  that  we  must 
p  «eek  for  the  pnxjuction  of  magnesian  carbonates;  and  I  hâve 
»rgued  from  thèse  considérations  that  much  of  northeastem 
America^  including  the  présent  basins  of  the  Upper  Mississippi, 
Ohlo,  and  St.  Lawrence,  must,  during  long  intervais  in  thé 
paleeozoïo  period,  hâve  had  a  climate  of  excessive  dryness,  aud 
8  surface  marked  by  shallow  enclosed  basins,  as  is  shown  by  the 
widely  spreaïi  magnesian  limestones,  and  By  the  existence  of 
gypsum  and  rock-salt atmore than  one  geologicàl  horizon withi^^ 
that  area.*   {Antt,  page  76.)    The  occurrence  of  serpentine  and 
■  diallage  at  Syracuse,  New  York,.offer8  a  curious  example  of  the 
local  development  qf  crystalline  magnesian  silicates  in  Silurian 
dolômiticrstrata,  under  conditions  which  are  imperfectly  known, 
and,  in4he  présent  state  of  the  locality,  cannot  be  studied.f 
(^^  Since  the  uncom^bined  ançl  hydrated  magnesian  mononsarbon- 
ate  is  at  once  decomposed  by  sulphate  or  chloride  of  calcium,  it 
foUows  that  the  whole  of  thèse  lim^^lts  in  a  sea-basin  must  be 
converted  intg  carbonates  before  the  production  of  carbonated 
magnesian  sédiments  can  begin.     The  carbonate  of  lime  formed  v 
by  the  action  of  carbonates  of  magnesia  and  soda  remains  at    ^ 
first  dissolved,  either  as  carbonate- (a»fe,  page  140)  or  a^)bica^^ 
bonate,  and  is  only  separated  in  a  solid  form,  when  in  excess,  ' 

■V 

v,*„?r'i°'"^  °'  "Southwegtera  Ontario,  American   Journal  of  Science  (2), 
aLVII.  3S5. 

+  Oeology  ofthe  ThM  District  of  New  York,  108-110;  and  Hunt  on 
Qff^oMt^M,  Amariaia  JottnuJ  of  BdeMi  (2),  XXVL  28^^ 


\ 


^.■â%iÂ 


4  .  -f"  * 


..  * 


xni.j 


Vf 

OEIGIN  ©y  CHYSTALLINE  ROdks. 


tu 


scribed,  and  in  pTb/^erl"  T  ^  *'^  ^^^^^  J^'  <i- 
are  made  up  of  calcareous  organfc  ^^^  thar^^   •'""''"'• 

animal  life.    As  planta  giverSHo  ^d«T  1  ''^'''^^''  *"^ 
««PPOsed  to  produce  liSrji     I^  f   .  "f'  '"  *"^^  ^ 

ceous  ani  JtZ  2e«  Îr°""^  «'"^"^  ^^ydrocarbon^ 

oiganic  matters  and  th^J T     .         appropmtes  alike  thèse 
Without  the  pC  the  '  ^K  ."^^  P'^^^P^'^    «f  iinxe. 

not  take  plJef  wl^e  Lr    r*,°'  '^  Mrocarbona  would 

or  .011 J,  tbe'  itn^r^T'jJa'smT^^^  ''  ^^^^ 
Chemical  reactions  and  wn,.U  ,        "  ^^  generated  by 

thèse  being  aatu^d^lts  Ll^^^^^^^  *^«  f^-  -til^ 

or  rock-salt  are  deposi  éd.  TLlt^lV  T  ^P«""^ 
any  causes,  life  is  excluded  r  ^  !  '^^^^^'  ^'^«^'  ^«'m 
of  lime  mly  U  f^^^t^n^:;^'''^.  f  P^  -Sonate 
white  marbles  oP  Vermont  Jif  ^  ^^'^  ***'""'^"  *«  ^^e 
i'npure  and  fossiliferorid  °""'''  intercalated  among 

a.  process.*  ^  ^  ^'^'  ^  ^PP^ently  examples  of  sucS 

led  to  appeal  to  Thf   k     *^^*  ?*"^°y  and  Murchison  were 
«trata,  £^L^,,  '^^^'^  «^  P W^ates  from  certain  old 

were  doubtless  co^jifenf  t''  '"'''  '"^  ^""^^^«• 

the;^oduotion  of  aiXl  /,  P""'''^''"  earth's  crust,  and 
tallile  schists  is  a  pC^  ^^^  "r"*]^  -ns  o.  in'crys- 
*P^^^  ««  ^«dépendent  9f  life  as  the  forma- 


•  American  Journal  h 
^SUuri8,«iied.,pp.i 


■nd  537. 


;.-v% 


312 


ifi'-'-f 


•iW 


'ït'Kj 


W^' 


IGIN   OF  CBYSTALUNB  R0CK3. 


[XIIL 


awing  plants,  it 


tion  of  ciyi^tals  of  quartz  or  of  hématite 
is  true,  take  up  from  the  soU  or  thçggi^^,,^  Ftw-Pimtes. 
which^^pasa  into  th'e  skéletons  ol'^ataàK-ji  procL  which 
boa  been, active  from  very  remote  période     I  showed,  in  1854 
r*Vï'*^^^^^  °^  ^«^  '^^  Orbicula,  both  ihose  from  thé 
base^e  palaeozoic  rocks  and  those  of  the  présent  tiine,  hâve 
(likft  J^ukria  and  Serpulites)  a  chemical  composition  similar 
t^e  skéletons  of  vertebrate  animais.»  .  The  relations  of  both 
c^raBnate  and  phosphate  of  lime  to  orgànized  beings  are  similar 
to^ose  of  silica,  which,  like  them,  is  held  in  watery  solution 
and  by  proc^  independent  of  Ufe,  is  deposited  both  in 
amorphous  antf  crystatline  forms,  but  in  certain  cases  is  appro- 
pnated  by  diiitoms  and  sponges,  and  rfade  to  assume  organized 
shapes.    In  a  word,  the  assimilation  of  silica,  like  that  of  phos- 
phate and  carbonate  of  lime,  is  a  purely  secondary  and  acci- 
mtf  process^and  wjiere  life  is  absent,  ail  of  thèse  substances 
alpe  deposited  m  iojneral  and  inoiganic  forms. 


•  Ameriojâ  Journal  of  Scjience  (2),  XVII.  236. 


I 


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# 


JUII.J 


ORIGIN  OF  CRYSTALLINB  ROCKS. 


813 


APPENDIX. 

fe    I  hâve  denied  thJt  Tstel  '^'^  ^''^°"'  ^"^  °^~  «^^^md 
^Pf  of  .nepheline  or  sSp^j^"''*  '^'^«^^^  "^  P^^ite  haviig 

the  proccHs  ô^amutation  •  andT        ""  în^nnediate  stages  in 
a  very  mevent^,^  which  ^  ^vl^^"  T^tained  anothe^nd 

he  «^«ent  fi.m  auppos^CemïïLte  î"^  '-^^^^  ^°*«  ««^^the;. 

the  muieral  th^  i„  SToi^^c  ^^^'*.*^/«"^  «  ^orth  no  more  in 

inutetionists,  inlhe  one  cTld  the  J^'  '^°'^°«  «^^he  trans- 

«milar  «,nside™tions.    In  eitW  L  Î!''  '^'""^  "P*^"  «'^««-^at 

Warnngton  ^yth,  th^^  j^  ^^^^  SlIL"''^  '*^'  ^^^'^  P~fe««or 

.^  tenais  for  a  histoiy  »  ;  „,hile  w?  "**f°«^*te  forma  "lie  the  ma 

doubt  whether,  fi^  a  serii  «r''^*'™'  ''^  ^'™'  *«  «P^ra 

*;7«tion  fro^  chr^soliteto  IL^?'^''''  «"PP«««i-  *«  «how  a 

:f,^"^:we«,^,pSigertoeoS?;.'\^^"''"  hornblende  to 

it'"  r«*^n,,  an  «^tual  tnlitTon tôt  ï     ''''''  ^'^  ^°'  ^"^ 

hi8  anmversaiT  adifaess  «JT!.^^      ™  ^''^  °"«  *«  the  other  »    r«?p« 

I-ndon,  inlZ.7        '       ^'''**  °'  *^«  «-^o^cal  sSiet/^f 

Profeasor  Dana  savs  that  q^t. 

«°d«avor  to  make  good  my  .^fo^^^T   t-'P'^"^'"^  '«'î  «hall 
^orphs,  publiahed  iTLSS»  ^ aT^^^-jJ^^^^^  ^Y  o°  Pseudo- 


'^''^f^rf»        i&^, 


M.jiiS«jSi«fei.il.f  ■'M^*    .«      -V» 


■I'-- 


'  w 


;w-*.  "''' 


'«sf  ii|  ._ 


314 


ORIOIM  OF  CRYSTALLINB  BOCKS. 


(ZIII. 


Delfâwe  begins  his  argument  by  remarking  that  sSnce,  in  «orne  cases, 
a  minerai  18  found  to  be  surrounded  by  another  clearly  resulting 
from  ita  altération  (as,  for  example,  anhydrite  by  gypsum),  certain 
mmeralogists  bave  supposed  tbat  wherever  one  minerai  enclom 
another  t|iere  jias  been  epigeuesis  or  pseudomorphous  altération. 
Such,  he  says,  may  sometimes  be  the.  case^  but  \i  is  easy  to  wx,  that 
it  18  not  ^  habitually.     A  cryetalîiied  minerai  species  freiiuenUy 
mcludes  i  laige  and  even  a  predonùnating  portion  o^  another,  and 
the  combiàation  i«  thèu  considewd  by  ihjany  as  an-e^ample  of 
partial  pseudomorphous  altération.     In  ^such  instances,  remarks 
Delesse,  the  question  ariaes  whether  we  hâve  to   do  with    the 
resuit»  of  envelopment  or  of  chemlcal  altération  ;  to  résolve  which 
it  becomes  necessary  to  étudy  carefully  the  proWem  of  envelopment 
He  then  proceeds  to  show  that  the  enveloped  substance  is,  in  sSme 
cases,  crystalline  (and  arranged  either  symmetrîcally  or  asymmetri- 
cally  with  regard  to  the  envelopiug  mass)  ;  whîle  in  other  cases  it  la 
amorphous,  and  enclosed  Uke  the  sand-grains  which  predominate  in 
the  calcite  crystols  of  Fontainebleau.    The  difficulty  in  deciding 
whether  we  bave  to  do  with  envelopment  or  with  epigenesià  increaseâ 
when  the  enveloped  minerai  becomes  so  abùndant  as  to  obscure  the 
«nveloping  species,  or  when  it  becomes  mixed  with  it  in  so  intimate 
a  manner  as  to  seem  one  with  the  latter  {ufmdre  inmisihlement  avec 
lui).    The  proportions  of  the  enveloped  and  the  enveloping  minerai,' 
we  are  told,  may  so  far  vary  that  the  one  or  the  other  is  no  Jpnger 
recognizable.    "  A»  the  forces  which  détermine  cryalallization  bave 
ft  great  enei^,  the  enveloping  minerai  is  sometimes  foimd  in  so 
small  a  quantity  as  to  be  entirely  masked  by  the  envelopirtg  species." 
"  When  minerais  bave  crystallized  simultaneously,  they  hhve  been 
able  to  become  associated  with  eacl^  other  and  to  envelop  dàéh  other 
in  ail  proportions  "  (loc.  cit,  pages  338,  339,  341,  353), 

Our  author  then  proceeds  to  tell  us  that,  having  carefully  studied 
in  numerous  spécimens  the  supposëd  mica-pseudomorphs  of  iolite, 
andalusite,  cyanite,  pyroxene,  hornblende,  etc.,  he  regards  them  as, 
m  aU  cases,  examples  of  envelopment,  and  expresses  the  opinion 
that  we  mu8t  omit  from  our  lists  a  great  number  of  the  so-called 
pseudomorphous  minerais,  especially  among  the  silicates.  The  final 
resuit  of  the  prôcess  of  envelopment  is^  accoiding  to  Delesse,  this, 
—  to  give  rise  to  mixed  minerai  aggr^at^  owing  their  extemal 
fomv  to  the  crystallizing  energy  of  one  of  the  constitnents,  which 
may  be  présent  in  so  «mail  a  quantity  as  to  be  compiêtely  obscured 
by  the  other  matter  présent.    From  this  condition  of  things  lesult 


/.  -•' 


(•  .'■ 


t 


.  xni.] 


OMOIK  0*  CBYBTALmE  BOCJta 


315 


PSeudomorpift.  "«««iUott  or  subflfatUtion,  w,  empfa,tica% 

déclare»  that  ?  isomorphTe^^,  !*^*^'  P«««à.a,oT,lri,iB,     He 
oAen  attribtiteÛ  to  dZTi'^      f^"*"  ^«^  *«il  facto  whidi  ^ 

talluationof  one  sait  Lund  «     '  ?      °^  *^«  V«>metric»l  emi 

.  ;   silicates  the  part  of  a- W  a^hvT' ^"*,'*"^^«d'  v^ater  pl«y«  ?„' 

i«>™«»l,Wéta  or  homœomorphKh?^^  r  °^J^ :«?ïto  by' 
of  the  hydmui.  .pecies.  M^hEs^r  1 1^'**'°°  ^^  moxe^     ' 

>«^clte  fW  st^:^  tZ^T*  ^"^^mDdesse  W 

We  haye  tlius  endeavoml  to  «^£3!^    «*  •    . 
the  viewfl  enunciated  in .  18Ô9  hTriS^I  -'^^  '°  ^^  "^  «^ûida, 

of  Pre-exi8ting  .neoiea.  but  bv^î  'l^     *  ^^  ^hemical  altérations 
T^atthe«bo^a^,.^lyt'4^^t^^^^^  .• 

Jittu^ïf  aa  coutiBiy  to  tho^^^oT^ÏÏoT'  ^.T7''•^>^ed  hf< 
doea  not  pennit  «a  to  doubT-  foi^L^K    •  *^'*  ^  °PP^«.  »«le8ae 


^ 


H'M 


$ 


Me 


ORIGIN'  OF  CRYSTALLINE  ROCKS. 


ptlll. 


f 


r   •* 


to  add  that  thèse  facts  may  also  be  explained  in  a  manner  altogether 
différent  (jieuvent  aussi  s'interpréter  d'une  manière  toute  différente)  ; 
and  «orne  savans  of  Germany,  notably  G.  Rose,  Haidinger,  Blum,       ^ 

I    G.  Bischof,  and  Rammelsberg,  hâve  sought  their  explanation  in         ^^^ 
pseudoinorphisniu    Their  example  bas  heen  foUowed  by  most  min-  ^^' 

eralogists,  etc."  (pages  358,  359). 

That  the  "  pseucIpmQrphism  "  of  the  autliors  just  •  named  is 
chemical  alteralion or  epigenesis,  it  is  not  neoessary  to  remind  the 
reader,  who  will  now  be  able  to.judge  whether  it  is  Professer  Dana 
or  myself  who  bas  mîsreprtisen'led  or  misunderstood  Delessp.   %ef'  ' 
us,  howeyer,  add  that  the  long  and  somewhat  diffuse  memoir  of  tlie  ^nw^ 
latter,  frdm  which  we  bave  quoted,  ia  wanting  in  ijnity  of  plaa  Bnd     ' 

•  purpose,  and  that  parts  -«^f  it,  if  we  raay  hazard  a  conjecture,  seem    . 
to  havc^been  written  wbile  he  still  inclined  to  the  views  of^  tha  J^ 

opposite  school.  From  the  table  of  pëeudomorphs  wbich  he  bas 
given,  and  from  many  passages  in  the  text,  it  migbt  be  inferred  that 
he  then  held  the  notions  of  Rose,  Haidinger,  etc.,  which  he  else-  "ï^ 
wbere,  in  the  samie  paper,  speaks  of  as  being  entîreîy  différent  from 
his  own.  The  views  of  Delésse,  about  this  time,  undewent  a  great 
change,  which  bas  a  historié' importance  in  connection  with  tbose  j 

which  I  advocate.    When,  in  1857  and  1858,  he  published  the  ftrst  ' 

and  'Second  parts  of  his  admirable  séries  of  studies  on  metamor- 
phï^',  Delesse  held,  in  comtnon  with  nearly  every  geologist  of  the 
time,  to  the  eruptive  origin  of  serpentine  and  the  reluted  magneaiaia 
rocks.  Serpentine  was  thén'classed  by  bii%,with  othef  "  trappean  ,. 
rocks  ";  and  Jie,  elsewhere  asserted  that  "  granitic  qn4  trappean*'  > 
rocks"  undergo  in  certain  aises  a  change  near  their  l^ntact  with 
the  enclosingiTock,  by  which  they  lose  silica,  aluniina,  ànd  alkalies, 
and  acquirë  jpagnesia  and  water,  being  thus  changed  into  a  Ihag- 

:  nesian  silicate,  .vfhich  may  take  the  form  of  saponite,  serpentine; 
talc,  or  chlorite  (Ann.  des  Mines  (5),  XII.  509  ;  XIII.  393,  415).  It 
would  bç  diffîcult  to  state  more  distinctly  the  view,  which  he  then 
held,  of  the  origin  of  thèse  magnesian  rocks  and  minerais  by  thé 
chemical  altération  of  plutonic  .(granitic  and  trapp'ean)  rocks.  Thia. 
was  in  1858,  and  in  1859,  apgeared  the  raemoiron  psCudômorphk, . 
already  noticed,  in  which,  in  place  of  the  theory  of  epigenic  peeudo- 
niorphism»  or,  chemical.  altération  of  varions  minerai  silicates,  taught 
■by  the  German  8chw)l,  hé  broug]^  forwiflM,  in  explanation  of  the 
facts  upon  whi^h  this  was  based,  another  theoi^y,  which  was  oDJjr  aa 
extension  of  that  already  maintained  by  Scheerer-aud  niyselft  , ,'  , 
It  was  not  ^intil  ÏSgl  that  ftelease  published  the  last  part  oj 


\ 


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XIII.] 


OKIGIN  OF  CBIYSTALLINE  ROCKS. 


317 


studies  01,  metamorphism,  which  appeared  in  the  Mémoire  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  France  (Vol.  XVII.)  ;  and  in  it  we  find  that, 
consistently  with  thé  new  view|^opted  by  him  in  1859,  the  old 
doctnne  of  the  epigenic  origin  ^serpentine  and  thé"  related  mag- 
nesian  rocks  from  the  altération  of;.plutonic  roeks  is  abandonS. 
lu  its  stead,  it  18  hère  suggested  by  Delesse  Oiat  ail  theâe  magnesiau 
rock6  pe8ult^fl•on^  t^e  ci^stallization  of  the  sepiolites  or  stcalle-l 
,  mognesian  claya,  whiclkare  fréquent  in  many  sedimentaiy  deposits. 

Thèse,  according  to  him,  by  a  molecular  rearrangement  of  their' 

-•eieme^s,   may  give  rise   to  serpentine, '  talc,  chlorite,  and  their  " 

yanou^assocmted  and  related  minemls.     The  rocks  thus  generated 

j, ,  -  a^  stiil  declared  to  pass  insensibly  into  plutonic  rocks  ;  but,  instead 

^        6^  maintaining.  as  lo  1858,  that  they  are  derived  from  the  latter 

.:      Delesse,  m  1861,  asserts,  on  the  contraiy,  that  «the  plutonic  rocks 

;    are  lomed  froq»  themetaïuorphic  rocks,  aiul  represent  the  maximum 

01  mtensity,  or  extrême  limit  of  metamorphisnu" 
V  -.Thk  recogn?ï$on  of  the  notion  that  the  great  masses  ôf  serpen- 
ITl-S'      /^^.^   ««"«tantly  ossociated  hornblendic,  talcose    and 
^  «hlotieî  rocks,  hâve  been  directly  formed  from  the  molecular  re- 
if     SSTf  f '^"*  dmgent^  of  aqueous  magnesian  sédiments,  and  not 
^,    tm  the  «Jiemi^  altération   or  epigeneHs  of    erupted  plutonic 
,       mteses,  marks  a  eoiï.plete  révolution  in  our  views  of  the  historv  of 
^>ir^^**".f"^  ''""'^    '^^  new  doctrine  did  not,  hpwever,  originale 
Delesse,  but  wés  previously  put  hnratd  by  myself  in  a  paper 
'^X  T  !2!?  "^  9''«'ni«ûl  Gteology,  read  before  the  Geologicaî 
P1.1    -    u-    ,  ,,      '"  •^'^""«'T,  Ï859,  appearing  in  abstracIPin  the 
Philosopbical  Magazine  for  February,  and  published  at  length  in 
the  OeologicAl  Jcmrhal  for  November,  in  the  same^ar.     I  there 
maihtainexl  that  serpentines  were  «undoubtedly  in#nous  rocks, 
resnJtingfrom  the  altération  of  silico-magnesian  sédiments  ";  and 
inot«c?Ver  asserted  tbat  tfce  final  resuit  of  beat,  aided  by  water,  on 
sueh  rockà»  wouW  be  theit  softenjiyr,  and,  in  certain  cages,  their  ex- 
travasation  aa  plutonic-  ïocks  ;  whi«U  were  reganled  "as,  in  ail 
S      S^  1^"*  displaced  sedimeftts.»    When  th^s  paper  was 
^tten^Hfi  185«,^I  sj^l.  supposed  thât  the  réactions  between  the 
V     elen^ffite  m  heâ»  6f  ^«llicious  magnesian-  carbonates  (which,  I  bad 
8J«»rn,  may.give  rise  to  certain  magnesian  siliq^tes  injmmediate 
p^imity.^  eruptive  Wckg)  mW  serve  to  explain^the  origin'  of 
,      g«at  apw  of  serpentine  «nd  ^ted  cîystallinjfeftgn^iàn  sili- 
jatea-  ijb^  my  sùidies  of  the  silicates  deposited  dtirinj?  thl'evBpom- 
'  ■     tlon  oTnatural  Wateiytnd  of  the-inagn^iaian  wnilipenta  of  thn  pAi«t 


/ 


\à* 


.  1^     ■.' 


■*■.: 


#^1 


i  '^^ 


}^ 


.-t- 


1* 


•  318 


OBIGIN,  OF  ,CEYSTALLINE   ROCKR 


ptlIL 


basin,  soon  led  me  to  seek  the  origin  of  thèse  rocks  in  the  altération 
of  previousljr  formed  uncrystalline  magnesian  silicates.  This  view 
was  set  forth  by  me  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science  for  March, 
1860  ((2),  XXIX.  284),  and  more  fuUy  in  the  Canadian  Naturalist 
for  June,  1860  (also  in  the  American  Journal  (2),  XXXII.  286), 
where  it  was  pointed  eut  that  steatite,  chlorite  and  serpentine  were 
^  probably  derived  from  sédiments  similar  to  the  magnesian  silicates 
..„  found  among  the  tertiary  beds  in  the  vicinity  of  Paria,  the  so-called 
magnesian  çiays. 

' ,         ^^  ^"^^  ^^  t^at  tbese  varions  novel  views,  put  forth  by  me  in 
,  "     1859  and  .1860,  though  totally  différent  from  those  taught  by  De- 
lesse  in  1858,  were  integrally  adopted  by  him  in  1861.     Thèse  dates 
are  circumstantially  given  in  my  addriess  of  last  year,  and  yet  Pro- 
^  fessor  Dana,  iii  his  review*  of  it,  charges  me  with  "  following  neariy 

Délasse"  as  to  the  origin  of  serpentine.  He  also  asserta  that  i; 
"  make  Delesse  the  author  of  the  theory  of  envelopment,"  whën  I 
hâve  there  declared  that  the  view  of  Delesse  —  "  that  the  so-called 
cases  of  pseudomorphism,  on  which  the  theory  of  metamorphism  by 
altération  has  been  built,  are,  for  the  most  part,  exainples  of  associa- 
tion and  envelopment,  and  the  resùlt  of  a  contemporaneous  and 
original  crystalHzation  —  is  identical  with  the  view  suggested  by 
^  Scheerer  in  1^46,  and  generalized  by  mysejf,  when,  in  1853,  I 
sought  to  explain  thè  phenomena  in  question  by  the  association  and 
crystallizing  together  of  homologous  and  isomojphous  species."  To 
^  Delesse,  therefore,  belongs  the  merit,  not  of  having  suggested  the 

notion  of  envelopment  in  this  connection,  but  of  having  pointed  out 
the  bearing  of  the  envelopment  of  heteromorphous  and  amorphous 
species  on  the  question  before  us. 

Professer  Dana  moicover  aseerts  that,  while  Scheerer  is  the  only 
one  who  maintains  similar  views  to  myselî,  I,  in  common  with 
ail  other  chemists,  reject  the  chemical  spéculations  which  lie  at  the 
l>a8e  of  his  views.  On  the  contrary,  unlike  mortt  chemists,  who 
hâve  failed  to  see  the  great  principle  which  underlies  Scheerer's 
doctrine  of  polymeric  isomorphism,  I  hâve  njaintai^ed  (American 
Journal  ot  Science  (2),  XV  230;  XVI.  2 18)  that  it  enter»  into  a 
gênerai  law,  in  accordance  wj^h  which  bodies  whose  formulas  dirfer 
,by  nM,0,  or  nlï,0,  may  (lîke  those  differing  by  nH,r,)  hâve  rela- 
tion» of  homology,  and  raoïeover  be'isomorphous.  (See,  further, 
Paper  XVII.  of  the  présent  volume.)  The  existence  of  thsse  same 
relations  was  further  maintained  and  excmplified  iA  a  paper  on 
Atoraic   Volume»,  read  by  me  before  the  Freuch   Academy  of 


<gi 


XIII.] 


ORIGIN  OP  CRYSTALLINE  ROCKS. 


319 


Sciences  and  published  in  the  Comptes  Rendus  of  July  o  1866 

address  last  year  (ante,  page  291),  and  declared  to  include  the  polt^ 
mène  womorphism  of  Scheerer.  ^^ 

Professor  Dana  next  say,  that,  in  asserting  that  «  the  doctrine  of 
pseudomophism  by  altération,  as  taught  by  G.  Rose,  fiSger 
thir  ''?  ^«^«^«^^-?'  ^--.  Bischof,ind  many  othetTS 
^  !fi  /  :  ■/  '"'*"'t«^°  tbe  possibility  of  convefting  almost  anv 
of  21  Tp"^  t''/  '  ^''  "^'^'y  misi^pr^sen^rd  the  views 
thaï  I  ""      T:  ^r'^"^'"'  ^'"^"^  Ran^nielsbeiK,  and  Dana"  ;  and 

hmestone,  from  hmestone  to  dolomite,  and  from  dolomirto  ser^ 

pent  ne  at  once,  without  passing  through  the  intermediate  stages  of 
hmestone  and  dolomite  "  ;-  «part  of  which  transformatioiL  "Ivl 
Professor  Dana^  ';  I,  for  one,  had  never  conceived  ;  and  S  Hai! 
dxnger,  Rammelsberg,  and  pr^bably  Blum,  rfnd  th;  '^ny^W 

rt  Ztr  *''"i"  ^^""«^^  "  "^y-^-"  The  "C^othe"'' 
as  he  nghtly  remarks,  are  "other  writers  on  pseudomorphisri^  » 
^ong  whom  ,t  would  be  unjust  not  to  name VirSeS     • 

and  Bischof     Accoidmg  to  Professor  Dana,^  I  "  add  to  the^srf^ 
resentation  by  means  of  the  strange  conclnsion  that,  h^^Z  " 
wnters  hold  that  «rystals  may  undeigo  certain  alte^tCT!   1 
position,  therefore  they  believe%hat  Iks ^the  ^o'^Zn ' 
may  nndergo  the  same  changes.»    This  "etmnge  concSn"  î' 
hâve  alwnystupposed  to  be  Professor  Dana's  own      NoonÏw™^     ' 
haps  asserted  it  so  clearly  or  so  broadly  as  hiiS  and  iTalUbr"^^' 
ore  quote  his  own  words  in  my  juftificaw' As  eL  yt  S" 
la  an  article  çnt  tled  Obser\'atinn«  ««   u      j  l  •  ^  ^' 

ican  Journal  of  Sci^ce  ^  /lVht   oo^T**"""'^^^  <^^- 


T 


P 


.  :  ■'f. 


4  'Ji         '  ^''--  ..tCrf 


••":«& 


'-^^vÀi'' 


320 


OEIGIÎf  OF  CRYSTALLINB  ROCKS. 


[xiri. 


extent,  and  common  in  rao8t  primary  forraatinns,  The  beds  of 
steatite,  the  atill  more  extensive  talcose  fonnations,  contain  every- 
whère  évidence  of  the  same  agents."  Again,  in  1854,  in  hia  Min- 
eralogy,  4th  édition  (page  226),  Professor  Dana,  alter  a  cômjjlete 
liât  of  paeudoiû^hs,  compiled  from  the  writéra  of  the  school  in 
question,  says  :  "  Thèse  examples'  of  pseudomorphism  should  be 
understood  as  cases  not  siibply  of  altération  of  crystals,  but  in  many 
1^      <-^^     ,  instances  of  changes  in  beds  of  fbck.     Thus  ail  serpentine,  whether 

in  mountain-masses  or  the  giinp.le  crystftl,  has  been  fornjed  through 
a  procesa  of  pseudomorphùm,  or  in  more  général  tangyage,  of  metamor- 
phism;  the  same  is  true  of  other  taagnesian  rocks,  as.  steatitic,  tal- 
cose, or  chloritic  slates.  Tkus  the  mbject  af  inetam&rphimn,  as  it  bears 
on  ail  crystalliiie  rocks,  and  of  pseiidomorphism,  are  but  braàches  of  (me 
System  ofjthenomeim."  ïg  there  could  be  any  doubt  as  to  the  mean- 
ing  of  the  words  which  I  hâve  italicized  in  quoting  them'  from 
Proifessor  Dana,  it  is  removed  by  his  language  in  1858;  Then,  as 
now,  adversely  criticièirig  my  views  on  this  question,  he  refers'  to 
the  statemepts  above  cited,  mode  in  1845  and  1854,  as  expressions 
of  lus  doctrine,  hientioning  especially  the  first  one,  in  which  he 
jr^  says,  *' metamorphism  is  spoken  of  as  pseudomorphism  on  a  broad 
Or^  seule."'  (American  Journal  of  Science  (2),  XXV.  445.)  I  confess 
that  I  do  jiôt  understand  Professor  Dana,  when  in  his  last  criticism 
/v  •  ,of  me,  foarteen,years  after  the  one  just  quoted,  he  reproaches  me 

with  having  charged  hiih  wjth  holding;  the  doctrine  that  "  régional 
,,      mstaphorphism  is  pseudmn^hism  cm  ^^g^and  scale"  ;  and  déclares 
that  he  makes  no  such  remark,  neitiisr  expresses  the  sentiment  in 
his  Mineralojgr  of  1654.      .'  :^j  ■     ." 

With  thèse  citations  before  îiBi..,,«nd*temembering  the  views  of 
.  Scheerer,  and  the  later  ones  of  IMe^,  togethrer  with  the  language 

of  the  latter  in  hig  ess^  on  Pseuclomprphs,  lët  us  notice  the  words 
-_^  ."  of  Naumann,  addressed  to  Delesse  in  186;,  in  allusion  to  the  essay 
in  question  ;  «*  Permit  m^  to  express  to  you%y  satisfaction  for  the 
ideas  enuncîated  ■in  your  metaoir  on  Pseudomorphs,  -^  ideas  Which 
my  friend  Scheerer  M-ill  doubtless  jihare  with  myself  »  (idées  que  mon 
^  ami  M.  Scheerer  partagera  sans  doute  comme  nvn-mème).  Then  fol- 
4ow8  tihç  language  which  I  hâve  quoted  in  my  address,  in  which  he-^ 
çowMts  the  error  of  those  "who  hold  that  gneisses,  amphiholite?, 
and  mer  crystalline  rocks  are  «the  resujts'of  metamorphic  epi- 
genOTi*,.«nd  pot  original  rocks,"  and# adds,  "It  is  precisély  bea/j^  - 
pshi^omorphism  has  sa  oftenbeen  cimfomded  with  metarnorphimn^iit 
thia  error  bas  found  acceptantes."     (Bu*L  Soo.  Oeol.  de  France  (2), 


vr  •  "•  ft 


ÉJl  ■•«•.. 


;,       :  .  •  ♦ 


xiir.] 


ORIGIN  OP  CBYSTALLINE  BOCKS. 


321 


always  avowed  the  doctrines  of  th^  Z!:      T.-       ^«"inann  hâve 
hâve  d^ealt  unfairly  with  theituthorUi^  ^''  '"*  ^"^"^^  *^'  ' 


n.y  opinions,  a  critS  ;f    8711/1"?  T^  '"^'•'"  ^«^^  '*"««« 
exp^Bsion  of  tl  Jllf  il?.^i^r  «^-«^  ^o  the  fo^. 


.  exp.;sion  of  ti™in  „;;MruTof  r,"'^"^  ^  ^^«  ^«^ 

^        186a     ThereaderwiltLrfiSh^^'"'"^:^^ 

.  Mr.  Hnnt  takes  occasion  toS^  ^^^--^of  <,nn.M,  which 
sion  to  iweudomorphism  "  THp  ,l<w  •'  '  '/  ,^'  ^"*  "  ''"^^  «"«- 
necessary  to  say,Tw  nevir Ih  w  !.  '''^  '^^"«""T^'  ^^  '^  hanily 
.  «laira  it.  It  is  he  oîd  do!S^  ?  xï^^  *"  ^^'^^^'  '^«^  does  he 
^f^^yBi.,or  i^^^ÏZH^^T^^^S^^^  Bou,  is 
Vadeï  hiy'papers  of  1859  antT-iRwv  «iVl  r      J       '  ^^^'  '^^  per-  • 

criledthe  first  class  of  crSn.!^!^    '  '"  "^  '^^^^«'  '  ^«ve 
and  aluminons  ^iIicat^7S  £,  /r^^^^^^^^^^^    l'I-^ 
.     arrangement  <,f  the  élément,  of  cky  and  Zd  i. T^''"^^^  ^^- 
in  those  pape»  that  what  l'hav^  n^n  a.x  ^^'^'^'^^^  I  mamtoined 
.^«econd  cL(in  wl  ich  toh^vT  ?^  ^  rocks  î  the 

meme^i,  hyZ^^^^Zt^'Z^  F^lominate)  haveleen 
fon«edsniii^^,JP^^^^^^ 

^  adopted  by  Deltesse  and  by  Gûmbèl  to  exXï  Îk    '  ^  '°^  ^""'^      - 
varions  magnesian  «iHcati  L's  hifhe^S  We^^^^^^ 
the  product  df  epiïrenesifl  ihp  !«**«,.  /"""^  &^**.f*%  regardedas 

to  have  bf.f.n  fn««^  I    ^*      f  rpentme  and  steatite  decltttes  them     -  ~ 

psewdomorphism  in  thatTotame  a™  c<^Jfin^  ^  15^^^"^^  *°. 
on  pages  704  and  710  ;  a  fact  ^h.VI,  i.Vu.lZ..^  veiy  bnef  nptiçae  ^ 
1^  j  **^niffn  jH  tnp  more  Buftiiuiui.i-  .n.! ' 


■a/*„,/ 


^5r 


mnr«^  r.  ,i{.iouuble,  v^lieii'wfl" 


-,  •      V 


*..•'• 


ê" 


■  '  --^ 


-r 


rw 


322 


OHIGIN   OF  CRYSTALUNE   ROCKS. 


[XIIL 


^ 


recall  that  the  aiithor  had  formerly  expressed  the  belief  "  that  psett,- 
(Ipmorphism  will  soon  conatitute  one  of  the  ihost  important  chap- 
tere  in  geological  treatises."  (^.merican  Journal  of  Science  (1), 
XLVTII.  66.)  That  Professer  Dana  has  receded  from  the  extrême 
views  on  this  subject  which  he  maintained  frora  1845  to  1858,  and 
which  I  hâve  constantly  opposed,  seems  probable  ;  but  ùntil  he 
^  formally  rejects  them,  the  student  of  geology  will  not  unnatundly 
*  Btippose  that  he  still  gives  the  sanction  of  his  authority  to  the 
doctrine  which  he  so  long  taught  without  any  qualification,  but* 
now ,  répudiâtes,  that  "  metamorphism  is  psevd(ymorpliism  on  a  bro^d 
tcale." 

[In  the  Neues  Jahrbuch  fur  Minéralogie  for  Novera|t>èr,  1872 
(page  865),  appeared  a  npte  from  the  vénérable  Cari  Fri«drich  Nau- 
mann  (who  has  since  died  at  an  adv*iced  âge),  in  which  he  com- 
menta upon  my  interprétation  of  his  letter  to  Delease.  He  begins 
by  aaying  that  I  hâve,  in  my  address  in  1871,  cited  some  passages 
from  that  letter,  of  which  he  then  proceeds  to  repeat  the  substance, 
and  adds  :  "  Although  I  am  still  strongly  opposed  to  the  excesses 
of  the  metamorphic  doctrine,  I  cannot  explain  how  Professof  Sterry 
Hunt  can,  from  the  extracts  of  my  letter  to  Delesse,  conclude  that 
I  regard  those  cases  of  pseudomorphism  upon  which  the  theory  of 
mettitmorpWsm  is  grounded  as  in  great  part  only  examples  of  asso- 
ciation and  devélopment^  and  also  as  a  resuit  of  a  simultaneous  and 
original  crystallization,  and  that  my  view  is  identical  with  his  own, 
which  he  first  put  forth  in  the  year  1853." 

Upon  this  I  hâve  to  remark  that,  instead  of  citing  in  my  address 
extracts  from  his  published  letter  to  Delesse,  I  gave  therein  a  trans- 
lation of  the  whole  letter,  with  the  exceptiom  of  the  first  three  Unes, 
which  are,  however,  given  above,  with  some  other  extracts,  in  my 
reply  to  Dana's  criticisms.  From  this  Ljnguage  I  conclude  that 
Naumann  knew  my  address  only  through  thèse  misleading  criticisms 
and  my  reply  thereto.  In  the  next  plac«,  it  is  not  clear  what  were 
the  excesses  of  the  metamorphic  doctrine  which  he  still  condemned 
iii  1872.  He,  as  we  hâve  shown  from  his  Lehrbuch  (anfe,  page  294), 
regarded  gneisses  and  sirailar  rocks  as,  for  the  most  piïrt,  in  some 
nnexplained  way,  of  plutonic  origin,  though  he  admitted  their  pro- 
duction in  certain  cases  by  the  altération  of  sixiiments,  agreeableJ,o 
thé  Huttonian  view  of  diagenesis  ;  while  in  the  letter  above  mén- 
tioned  he  ch|iracterizes  as  erroneous'the  veny  djff«grent  notion  that 
ail  S^eisses,  amphibolites,  etc.,"  are  "  tBe  sesults  of  metamorphic 
epigenesi**.."    from  his  language  in  1872,  however,  it  would  appeor 


Vf' 


'¥*-" 


3^ 


*        ^m  ORIGJN   OP  CETSTALLINE   ROCKS.  333 

Schee..er,  who,  iu  det^T/epSj^S  o7 th  ^'^  *^'^»"^  "*" 
ciatecl  withchrysoUte  and  mJ^f^i     l^      .   *^^  serjHjntine  aeso- 

congratulations  to  Dele.s««  (who  hknn,<''H    1       ,  .J  '"''^  ^"""^'  ^»» 

lias  beeu  regaixled  as  pLudomo^^hî       ^""^^  *^"*  ™"'^*^  «^  ^h"^* 

mit  of  no  other  intemrebTtion  »!  ^f^  ^"^'^'  "^  ^^  "P"»»^,  ad- 

expi^ssed  views  of  the  "-0^  1  ?  '  -ntradiction,  in  thel 
e^plain.  venerdble  teacher,  which  it  is  not  easy  to  \ 

opinions  «iK,n  hJZ^^Z^^^^  Wing  their  .al 
fine,  as  clearly  as  I  hâve  Aan^  "'f*'"««'on-  Let  Professor  Dana  de- 
magne^ia,  rocks,  boÏr  htl  '  ^^f  T^,*^  *«  ^'^^  -«-"  of 
minerais,  and  «Tose  comnosed  S  !.  ^  «f  chrysolue  and  pyroxenic 
which  be  fiasfcsSTclefr'^"*'"'!  '^*^"*^  «"^  '^J'iorite. 
let  hin.  t«ll  „[  wKr  beTolH    .';  ""/ P'^«»«««  «f  th«  former 

-etamo^his^Lbth'l'l  g  î  nm^'^Zf  'T''^-^'^^ 
^i'ph,asIha4shown,wa8hellbvn!l  '  f  '^^  1858,  and 
doctrine  so  long  main  Ji^d  W  i  î^  •"J**^  *"  ^8^7,  or  that 
1861.  Sqph  a  deZ !„  !1.  Ui^'  "^"^  ^^^  ^""«''  ««'opted  in 
who  loo^to  hi^as    TeaTh^'in^^™^^ 

further  misconception  or  unltenttnT'  '"^  """'**  P'"^'^"*  -^"-^ 
view8.J  *.  «nmtentional  misrepresentation  of  bis 

che^tr:îte''r:ro;Sfb  .*^^  P-P-^^-  t^«t  the 

to  be  conceived  reltendir  toT,!''^  "' ^•*'^''^"*^  "^«^stals  are 

over,asserted  thaTZ^H^ISt^^^'r^i  ''^^'"^'  '»"-- 
and  pseudomorphism  "  C  o„  Tl  lt„f  n"  '^  of  ™etamorphism 
eomràitted  to  ail  the  decSons  ^  .  Tu^î"'  ^^'"  '«  '««^««"v 
tbe  transm«tationi?t  scTooThTd^  /^'  '^u"^'"'  '^^  "^^^  ^^ich 
ofminerHla.     Bv  "  f!  1^.^  ^^  .^^^^J;;^^^ 


/ 


./" 


<%,:,'■  ,ii' 


I 


1^    - 


•1 


« 


324 


ORIGIN  OF  CRYSTALLINE  ROCKS. 


[PII. 


■*■- 


fourth  édition  of  Dana's  Mineralogy,  it  will.  be  seen  that  each  one 
of  the  métamorphoses  of  Pocks  mentioned  in  the  a'bove  extract  from 
niy  address  is  based  upon  an  asserttsd  epigenic  change  or  conversion  ^ 
of  the  constiVient  species.  I  shall,  however,  show,  in  addition,  that 
in  each  case  the  application  of  the  principle  to  rock-masses  bas  been 
recognized  by  one  or  more-  of  the  authorities  already  named,  and 
that  the  so-called  caricature  haa  been  drawn  by  their  own  hands. 
It  would  be  easy,  did,  space  permit,  to  extend  greatly  this  list  of 
supposed  transmutations.  Tbe  varions  associations  of  rocks  and 
minerais  in  nature,  when  interpreted  according  to  the  canons  of  this 
school,  seem,  in  fact,  as  remarked  by  Professer  Wamngtori  Smyth, 
in  his  address  already  quoted,  "  to  oflFer  a  ykemium  to  the  ingenious 
for  inventftig  an  almost  infinité  séries  of  possible  combinations  and 
permutations."  Before  proceeding  further  it  is  to  be  noted  that  no 
distinction  can,  in  many  cases,  be  established  between  the  résulta 
of  altération  (or  partial  replacement)  and  substitution  (or  Oomplet^ 
replacement)  ;  sinfee  successive  altérations  may  give  tMsame  pro^ 
duct  as  direct  substitution.  Thus,  fpr  example,  quarts  might  be 
directly  replaced  by  calcile,  or  else  first  «dtered  to  a  silicate  of  lime, 
which,  in  its  tum,  might  be  changed  to  carbonate.  The  altération 
of  quartz  to  a  silicate  of  magnesia,  and  that  of  both  ffyroxene  and 
pectolite  to  calcite,  is  maintained  by  the  writers  of  the  présent 
school. 

SÇetamorphOsifl  of  granité  or  gneiss  to  limestolte  :  —  Calcite,  we  are 
told,  is  pseudomorphous  of  quartz,  of  feldspar,  6f  pyroxene,  and  of 
garnet,  besides  other  species  ;  it  moreover  replaces  both  orthoclase 
and  albite  "  by  some  process  of  solution  and  substitution."  (Dana's    ^.,.- 
Mineralogy,  5th  édition,  361.)     Since  quartz,  orthoclase,  and  âT&ite 

'  can  be  replaced  by  calcite^  the  -transmutation  of  granité  or  gneiss        ' 
into  limestone  présents  no  djiflaculty.    [In  the   jpinion  of  Messrs. 
King:  andf   Eo^vney,  the   crystalline  liméstones   of  Tyree  in  the 
Hébrides/  thoee  of  Aker  in  Sweden,  and  similar  iimestones  in  th& 
LaurentiaW  of  North  America,  were  at  one  time  beds  of  gneis^, 

'  diorite,  and  otfaer  silicated  rocks,  wbich  hâve  been  changed  by  an 
epigenic/ proceës.  (Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natural  History  for 
1874,  Vol.  Xllt.  page  390.)  Yoi^  bas  also  asserted  a  similar 
origin  îdr  ceilain  gneis^oid  limestones.]^^ ,"'         \_^ 

Metamorphosis  of  limestone  to  dolomite  :  —  This  change  is  main- 
tained by  Von  Buch,  Haidinger,  and  many  o£heni.  I  am  blamed  for 
mentioning  in«connection  wilh  tlpi  school  the  name  of  Haidinger, 
who,  Professer  Dana  says,  "  never  wrote  upon  the  subject  of  the 


•jÊÊIt-- 


\ 


^ 


XlUt] 


PRIQIH  OF  CRY8TALLINE   ROCKS. 


325 


altération  of  rocis  "    Tt  «rjii   i.< 

e™  as  a  disciple  o/thi  seTooT  1„  1  r."*  ^'''^'^  ^^"™'  «"^  «'1^- 

forth,  the   theorr  Stlr  aunnt^      ""'  *°  '"^^^  ^'^  ^^^^^^>^  ««* 

dolomite  by  the  action  oiT/  '""f'^^""  "^  «mestone  iuto 

pressai; -a  th;oTwVi    iTar^'^f  "'  "'^'  '^  ^^^^  ^'^ 

,  -«nd  Kopp,/,,^^^^;^^^^^^^  I.  246;  Liebig 

of  Science  (2),  XXVIII.  376)       ^^'/^^^  '  ^"d  American  Journal 

Metamorpho8is,of  dolomite  ioBern^tine-      Tl.-     1, 
ta>ned  by  G.  ^Rose  (Bischof  Ch^S^l  U   42.?  T.''  "A'^"' 
(Amencan  Journal  of  Science  (3)  HI  89)'  ^'  "'"'^  ^^  ^^"* 

Pen'îl-SÎÏ^ÎSL'.^^S^  ^^-"y  into  se. 

by  Muller,  and  ^iopted  b^  BiJbof    *™"«-"^t-- «-  "-intained 

Metamorphosis  ofhm.  J  ^^''^-    P^^"^  ««oJ,  II.  424,  434.) 

address,  !  ^Se  tnTe  Wh"  '^^  *'^  ^^^"^^^  '^*^^  "'  -7 

of  diorite,  hornblende-rock  171^  a    l  ^""^^'^     Met|ppho«is 
Breithaupt,  Von  Rath  (Îl  417  1  8^^^^*'  «« WineT^Rose, 

^   ^«  *^;-Iate  ^.d  chlorLliVa  W 
talc-«late  and  steatite,  andL(L^;„  .  ■    ^^^^ '■   ™»«^-«late  to 

468).  ^  '  ^^^-  ^'^^^-rock  to  ateatite  ;  Blum  (IL    . 

Btillmaintained  by^the^Twerh'"'"^.'^  ''™'^"«^  ^«"«'«'^ 
tions.     in  one  of  thèse  Ljfj^*''^^  ^^  *^"  ^^«"*  PWica-  K 

teach%  the  conCS.  o^^^^^  Not  con^Jt^      " 

and  5hond«Klite  into  ^IcaMt^LS,^^^^^^^^^^  ^^Ê^^e, 
accordm^  to  Dana  and  othera  .^Tl.l^  n  -  ^^^^i"^e,  whicb, 
of  silicated  or  carbonate  «^  ° ''^  "^^  fr"»"  th«  altemtioù 

epigenic  changT  and  tl  T'I^^f^-  ^**^^  ^^^'''"«  '^^  ««^ject  of 
««ks.  which  Ta  mttuts  oÏT     T  '^'^''-  '  "^^^  «Piicalce> 
We.  accor^n,  to  K^^^^^l^r  t^"^  t'^^'T''  "™^ 
Irom  serpentine  ;  «nd^ev  funW    ^'  ^^"  .^''""^Al»  manner 


\   ^ 


#■• 


./ 


-Vv^ 


1»  "        '    ^     .' 


326       '  GEOGNOSY  OF  THE  APPALAÇHIAN8.  ixiIL 

the  foniis  of  a  forat&iniferal  organûin^  the  Eozoon  Canadenm'^f 
,'  Dawson.    This  eingular  supplément  to  the  hypothêsia  of  epigenio 
change  TeuillB  the  notion  of  the  older  iiaturalista,  wiio,rather  than 
admit  the  oi^ganic  origin  of  shells  fooiid  in  the  rocka,  imagined 
them  to  have^i»4n  generated  by  a  plastic  force.    It  i»  évident  that 
it  makes  little  différence  what  minerai  species  is  taken  as  a  starting. 
point  for  thèse  transibrmations,  and  Dr.  Gîenth  has  assumed  coruu- 
dum.    In.  a  récent  paper  (Proceedings  of  the,  American  Philosophi- 
cal  Society,  Septçmber  19,  1873)  he  has  diacussed  varioua  lacts 
ohserved  in  the  association  and  envelopment  of  the  minerais  associ- 
ated  with  it,  and  concludes  that  there  hâve  been  fotmed  from  corun- 
4.  dum,  by  epigenesis,  spinel,  tourmaline,  fibrolite,  cyanite,  paragonite 
damourite   and  other  itàcas,  chlorite,  and  probably  various  fekl- 
spars. .  AcGording  to  him,  gre^it  beds  of  micaceous  and  chloritic 
schists  hâve  resulted  from  the  transformation  of  corundum,  and 
even  the  beds  jjjÉfcftuate,  a  mixture  of  hydrous  aluminic  and  ferrie 
oxides,  allietyfllHftiite,  which  abounds  in  certain  tertiary  depos- 
its,  \Vere  <aij|B|w|dum  or  eraery,  from  which  this  amorphous 
hydrate  iàiHHppfo  hâve  been  derived  by  a  rétrograde  metamor- 
phosis  ;  a  BtrfH^pbcample  of  the  strange  conclusioua  to  which  ithis 
doctrine  of  epigenîc  psendomorphism  Jnay  lead.     The  corundum- 
bearing  vein-stones  présent  close  resemblance  in  the  grouping  and 
,  association  of  minerais  to  the  granitic  and  calcareous  vein-stones 
described  in  Essay  XI.  of  the  présent  volume.     Ree,  further,  the 
aiithor's  criticisms  on  this  sùbject,  Proceedings  Boston  Society  of 
.  Nàtural  History,  Maroh  4,  1874.] 

Corning  now  to  his  criticism  of  the  first  part  of  my  address,  with 
regard  to  New  England  rocks,  Professer  Dana  assurts  that  "  there 
are  gneisses,  mica^echists,  and  chldratic  and  talcoid  8chi«ts  in  the 
Taconic  séries."  I  hâve,  however,  shown  in  my  ad«lres8  that  Em- 
mons,  the  author  of  the  Taconic  System,  expressly  exchuled  there- 
from  the  crystall^ne  rocks,  which  he  include<l  in  an  older  primary 
System  ;  excepting,  however,  certain  micaceous  and  talcose  beds, 
whicl^  he  declared  to  be  recoujiposed  rooks,  made  up  from  the  niins 
of  the  primary  schists,  and  distingnished  from  thèse  by  the  absence 
bf  the  charactenstic  crystalline  minerais  which  belông;  to  the  Green 
Mountain  primary  schists. 

Again,  Professer  Dana  states  that  I  make  the  crystalline  schists 
of  tfie  White  Mountains  a  newer  séries  than  the  Green  Mountain 
rocks.  Such  a,  viev  of  their  geognostical  relation»  has  been  main- 
tained  for  theçlast  génération  by  the  Messrs.  Rogers,  Logaii,  and 


i 


'J         ^>  !■'<•.    ,      ,»■.-    -.-i-SfiW^'f 


XUl] 


OEOGNOSY  OP  THE  APPALACHIANS. 


327 


the  Green  Mountain/ X'^??^  hom«n  than  ihose  of 
antiquity,  I  hâve,  ho^yeZr  Ztuf  f  l."''''  «f  tJli^^lative 
South  Curolina,  Plnn^SuSL^^'-  ''^'#*'  f«>«' 

wi;^b  ,.ânt  t.  the  SU.L  co.,:îuî!:^  Ci^  sr^'^î"^'/^"  ^' 

évidence  irom  New  Brunswick  ami  li-  ,n.  K        L^       "^  "'^'^  """'"^ 
loKical  mrunKeuient"  of  New  F  .,.,'''''''  '^'"^''*-    My'chrono- 

ûftimmtion  tbat  they  ai4  ail  Ifr.  n  ""f  °"'"'  "  '''"'*«''  *o  ,„y 
which  it  need  only  W  rntfoned  tSTf.""^"'",,"»"^  '  '"  P'^'^^  «^ 
"  tlie  types  i„  ..ueftionTri"  1-  ^he  crystalline  Bchi«t8  of  both 
•  overlaid  by  u  .cmtoUine  '  h  1  '"?  ^"'  Brunswick,  direetly 
"-le  up  in  partTthe  Jï«  !J  .r'^""''  ""^  conglon,erate( 
(AfenevL)  fhuna.  ^'  ''^  *^''''  ""'^  ^«^ing  a  Cambrian 

«ppea'r  toLongToagr^t  «^,^^1^'  °"'  *'^  ''*^*  ^'^'^  ^'^«^ 
an  Great  Britain,  in  continental  Europe  Ld  h!  A  "^^      T""""' 

Period.    I  answer,  that  in  opZition  T  f h.     f*/'^'i^  ^««^«gical 
t>een  proved  that  V»,»!r  K=i  "PP^*™**"  *°  t^^»©  facts,  it  has  net  yet 

observations,  L  I  h^dôn^tliM    "  "'^^  l^^;  bringing  together 

«.e  geologicilvaW  thr^te,:%:LrT  r  Î^  '^^"^T 
William  Smith  proKe  in  nrp»7nT'  ^         ^  "°  °*^^'"  ^«^  ^id 


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XIV. 


THE   GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPS. 

Thls  review  appeared  ta  the  American  Journal  oT  Science  for  Janaary,  1872,  and 
serves  to  throw  muni»  light  upon  many  Important  and  still  debated  potate  of  geoîogy. 
I  hâve  added  as  an  appendix  to  the  présent  reprint  the  récent  conclusions  of  Favre, 
and  the  stateiçents  of  PUlet.  whlch  serve  to  confirm  certain  positions  assumed  In  thé 
review,  and  elsewhere  ta  this  volame-.f 
* 

SiNCE  the  days  of  De  Saussure,  the  Alps  hâve  been  the  ob- 
ject  of  constant  study.  <So  other  portion  (tf  Europe  oflbrs  so 
many  problems  of  interest  to  the  geglogist  and  the  physical 
geographer  as  this  great  mountain-chain,  whether  we  consider 
its  lakes,  glaciers,  and  moraines,  its  curiously  disturbed  and 
inverted  fossiliferous  strata,  which  seem,  at  first  sight,  arranged 
for  the  confusion  alike  of  paleontologists  and  stratigraphists,  or 
the  crystalline  rocks  which  form  its  highest  summits.  To  give 
a  list  of  the  varions  investigators  who  hâve  contribxrted  their 
share  to  the  elucidation  of  this  région  would,  of  itself,  be  no 
slight  task,  and  would  besides  be  foreign  to  our  présent  pui> 
pose  ;  which  is  to  call  attention  to  the  learned  work  of  Pro- 
fesser Alphonse  Favre  oï  Geneva,  in  which- he  has  given  us  the 
results  of  more  than  twenty-five  years  of  labor  in  the  study  of 
Alpine  geology,  chiefly  in  Savoy  and  the  adjacent  parts  of 
Piedmont  and  Switzerland,  embracing  Mont  Blanc  and  ita 
vicinity.  It  is  now  twelve  years  since  the  présent  writer  had 
occasion  to  review,  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science  ((2), 
XXïX.  118),  some  points  in  Alpine  geology  raised  by  our 
authorin  his  memoir  "Sur  les  terrains  liassique  et  keuperiende 

*  Recherches  Géologiques  dans  les  parties  de  la  Savoie,  du  Piémont,  et  de 
la  Suisse  voisines  du  Mont  Blanc,  avec  un  Atlas  de  82  planches,  par  Alphonse 
Favre,  Professeur  de  Géologie  à  l'Académie  de  Genève.  3  Vols.  8vo.  Paris. 
1867. 


% 


J». 


Il'  "  "'" 


XIV.] 


THE  GEOLOGY  0*F  THE  ALPS. 


329 


la  Savoie," published  in  1859  q,r,  *u  .  .. 
^tebed  by  Favx.  hâve  fn  slTof  ^""^  *^^  "^«"^  ^^«'^ 
g-und,  and  a,,  set  forth  1  iZl  t  T  '^^^'""'  «^^"«^ 
Ported  by  an  amount  of  ev  £  w>,  .  ^''''"'  ^"^^'  «"P" 
We  shaU  endeavor  ta  its  pli?  "^  '"'"'  convincinjf. 

Blanc  and  the  adjacent  ^nf  '  ''™^'"^  ^^  ^-* 

do  ::  r?:xt:Vbi^-  -  ^^  «^^-  ^^  «-de. 

sepamted   ta  each  other  ^^  T^  ""  ^^'""^^  «"^««^ 

between  Nice  and  the  plains  of  tZ  ^  P"'"'"'  *^«^  «^^ 
four  sùch  ar^,  standingTp  ke  2^?^'  ''"  *'""  *^''^^- 
^entary  rocks,  and  pr^enLf  fn wf  '"*  ^^  *^«  ««^i' 

Mont  Blanc  is  the W  ^ma^ableTn?  •  " V'^'*^"""  ^^k' 

de  Beaumont  as  "  rfsin^  th^  f     ',        ''  ^««^ribed  by  Ehe 

secondary  st^ta.  w^hicT  ^t  ita"^^  1  ^""*-"^*>-  ^  ^^e 

hole."     The  length  of  thï  aiT  T'P^'^i^^  «  g^^at  button- 

fron.  the  Col  du  BoXmme  rth/  Tv.^"^  "^^'  '^-«"'-^ 

Valais  on   the  nortW   lU        "*^^''*  *"  «^^«"  i«  the 

breadth,  f„,.  ChamonT'on  th^^o!;:  '"r^'"^'  "^"«  ^^ 

Courmayeur  on  the  soÛthlt    is T  J''*  ^  ^"^'^^^^  "^^ 

Je«gth   of  the   centml  raasTôf  n^r       "•^'''^'"^''^^-     ^^^ 

twenty-seven  kilometils      Of  .hr'^"'     '  ^'^'"^^'  °"'^ 

area  the  highest  attains  an  «levât  «n  ofT^^n  '  ^'^^  ^"   ^^^' 

levai  of  the  sea,  beins   3 /«r     ,°^  ^'^^^ '"«^^^  «bove  the 

Chamonix,  and  3  ^Lt'l      Z      '  "^""'    "'«   ^^"«^  of 

This  g.at'  .ass  if  de^^td  ^^^^  ^^  «^.^^'^ves. 

fpor  comeis  by  as  nianT  h„tt~.        ■  '  ™PP»rted  al  the 

Seigne,  and  deFemi     Th!  ^w    *  B»"-»".  de  Voza,  de  h 

*«1.  the  «o»nwL'i  tr  *r  ■'"'   '"^  ■"'""'«■  "i* 
«  take  the  Col  de  rlZofel,  M^^  "  "."'''°«'''  "PP"™"'  « 

■«*<>«- ».i»rk^^^^fv«d  *.fc,„t  ,^^ 

°»  fcivmg  a  slope  of  about  30°.    A  still 


C^J 


\ 


Af- 


4»? 


-«H- 


330 


THE  GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPS. 


[XIV, 


greater  inclination  ia  obtained  if  we  chooscî,  instead  of  thèse, 
^e  summits  of  the  Aiguilles  which  bear  the  same  names,  and, 

'^iltkough  now  isoliited,  represent  portions  of  the  former  mass 
,_jOf  Mont  Blan^» 

The  crystalline  rocks  of  this  région  présent  two  types  :  first, 
the  protogines  which  form  the  centre  ;  and,  "second,  the  crys- 
talline àchists  which  •  occupy  the  flanks  and  form  the  Aiguilles 
'  Kouges.  Thèse  schists  are  also  found  at  a  great  élévation  on 
the  mountain;  at  the  Grands  Mulets  (4,666  mètres)  the  rocks 
are  talcose  and  quartzope  schists  with  graphitCj  hornblende, 
epidote,  talc,  and  asbestul?,  and  similar  rocks  and  minerais  are 
found  from  thence  to  the  Vummit.  The  protogines  themselves, 
according  to  the  évidence  ^f  nearly  ail  who  hâve  studied  them, 
are  stratified  rocks,  gneiss^c  in  structure,  and  pass  in  places 
into  more  schistose  varieties^^  though  Favre  regards  the  distinc- 
tion between  thèse  and  the\  crystalline  schists  proper  as  one 
clearly  marked.     The  outline^  presented  by  the  weathering  of 

;  the  protogine  are  very  unlike  the  rouuded  forms  assumed  by 
true  granité  rocks.  Aciîîording  to  Delesse,  the  rpck  toi  which 
Jurine  gave  the  name  of  protogine  is  a  talco-micaceouJ^B^te 
or  gneiss,  made  up  of  quartz,  generally  more  or  less  gnl|Hi  or 
smoky  in  tint,  with  orthoclase,  grayish  or  reddish  ia  éolor,  and 
a  white  or  greenish  oligoclase  with  characteristic  ^striœ,  often 
penetrated  with  greenish  talc.  The  mica  (biotite),  which  some 
previous  observers  had  mistaken  for  chlonte,  is  dark  green  in 
color,  becoming  of  a  reddish  bronze  by  expoçure.  It  is  binaxial, 
nearly  anhydrous,  and  contains  a  large  portion  of  ferrie  oxide. 
The  composition  of  the  protogine  rock,  as  a  whole,  differs  from 
that  of  ordinary  granité,  according  to  Delesse,  only  in  the 
présence  of  one  or  two  hundredths  of  iron-oxide  and  magnesia. 
The  name  of  arkesine  was  giveh  by  Jurine  to  a  variety  of 
protogine  containing  ehlorite  with  hornblende,  and  sometimes 
sphene.  Among  the  other  crystalline  rocks  of  the  Alps  are 
varions  talcose  and  chloritic  schists,  with  steatites,  chromifer- 
ons  serpentines,  diallage  rocks,  diorites,  and  euphotides,  asso- 
ciated  with  beds  of  petrosilex  or  eurite,  frequently  porphyritic. 
,    Highly  niicaceous  schists,  often  quartzose,  and  holding  gamet, 


.  ■•Ésj>. 


XIV.] 


THE  GEOLOGY  OP  THE  ALPS. 


331 


rocks  of  the  Aips.     A  great  belt  of  serpentine  and  chloritic 

of.the  Montanvert  overiaid   by  the  euritic   porphyries,  into 
which  they  appear  to  gmduate;  the  whole  séries,  hère  sup- 
posed  to  be  inverted,  dipping  at  about  60°  from  the  vallev  of 
Chamonix   toward   Mont  Blanc,  and    overiaid   by  the   Lre 
massive  gneiss  or  protogine.     The  chloritic  and  talcose  schists 
01  the  Alps  hâve  close  resembknces  with  those  of  the  Umls 
and,  as  Damour  has  shown,  contain  a  greM  many  minerai  spe^ 
CJ.S  m  common  with  them.     F^vve  has,  moreover,  remarked 
the  s^ong  hkeness  between  the  chloritic  and  talcose  schists 
and  the  mica-sclusts  with  staurolite  of  the  western  Alps  and 
those  found  m  Great  Britain. 

Granité,  though  not  abundant  in  the  vicinity  of  Mont  Blanc 
occurs  m  several  localities,  the  beat  known  of  which  is  Valor- 
sine,  where  a  po^hyroid  graÉîte  with  black  mica  forma  con- 
sidérable masses  and  sends  lai^e  veins  into  the  adjacent  gneiss 
Thèse    with  othei«  found  at  ^the  Col,  de  Balme  and  fn  Z 
AiguiUes  Roqges,  appear  to  be  true  eruptive  granités.     Numer- 
Zlrfr'Z  """'  ^itl;^^™ong  the^rystalline  schists  in  the    '• 
gorge  of  Tnent  appear,  however,  to  belong  to  what  I  hâve 
descnbed  as  endogenous  gmnites.  ^  (Ante,  page  193.)     FavL 
has  bmself  mamt.ined  that  they  ^are  the  ïsTults  of  aq«Z 
nh  tration  and  has  noticed  the  fact  of  a  joint  runnin«  W 
tudmally  through  the  middle  of  many  of  them  T^Tvi  Ze 

of  this  mode  of  formation. „ eviaence 

The  uncrystalline  strata  in  the  région  IroTnd  Mont  Blanc 
include  représentatives  of'the  carbonifen,us,  triassic    iura  sic 
-ocora^an,  cretaceons,  and  tertiaiy.     The  eiistenc    'pf  an  a^! 
pa^ntly  carbonifero^flo,^,  and  its  intimate  association  with^ 
Wfauna,  has  long^en  a  well-known  fact  in  Alpine  gelgy 

LsL'tbr  ^"^  '"*  t'-ex-tençeof  a^oneof'triaii 
rocks  m  this  région  represented  by  red  and  green  shales  with 

rCl)  X"'  ^K^r™  °^~  '^-^- 

.by  JJuefckml  and  BakêWèfl,  mnfieirlIôrS^was  e^^ 


M^^^ . 


-^ïîju.îH  i 


332 


THE   GEOLOGY   OF  THE  ALPS. 


[XIV. 


,4 


■■•««  •, 


•^'J.. 


lished  by  the  diacovery  of  Favre  that  their  position  is  inter- 
mediate  between  the  carboniferous  and  the  strata  containing 
Avicula  contorta  (the  Koesen  beds,  or  the  •  Ehaetic  beds  of 
Gumbel),  which  are  recognized  as  fonning  a  passage  between 
théxtrias  and  the  lias,  at  tlie  base  qî  the  jurassic  System.  'To 
theâe/\^  the  northwest  of  Mont  Blanc,  succeed  the  higher 
meniber^)f  the  system,  followed  by  the  neocomian,  the  creta- 
"ceous,  and  Nie  nummulitic  strata  of  the  eocene,  with  overlying 
vpandstones  and^shales,  the  flysch  of  some  Alpine  geologists. 

\Fe«r  questions  %  geology  hâve  been  more  keenly  debated,  or 
giVen  rise  to  mpre  bften-repeat^d  examinations,  than  the  asso- 
ciation of  a  cârboniferoiiâ'flora  with  liassic  belemnites  in  the 
districts  of  Maurienne  ahd  Tarentaise,  to  the  southwest  of 
Mont  Blanc.  As  seen  at  Petit-Cœur,  the  schists,  Avith  impres- 
sions of  ferns  and  beds  of  anthracite,  were  so  long  ago  as  1828 
described  by  Elie  de  Beaumont  as  apparently  intercalated  ia 
the  jurassic  system.  Scipion  Gras,  and  Sismonda  after  him, 
H^iave  agreed'in  regarding  the  rocks  as  constituting  one  great 
sjh^m,  which  according  to  Gras  is  of  carboniferous  âge,  but 
with  ^  jurassic  fauna  ;  while  De  Beiaumont  and  Sismonda,  on 
the  contWy,  regarded  it  as  of  jurassic  âge,  but  with  a  carbon- 
iferous florii,  and  imftgined  tliat  by  some  means  there  had  been 
in  this  région  a  l^iCal  survival  of  the  végétation  of  the  palœo- 
zoic  period.  Thçée  CQnclusions  were  accepted  by  many  geolo- 
gists, though  rçjected  bjr  not  a  few.  A  brief  account  of  the 
controversy  up  to  that  date  will  be  foixnd  in  the  American 
Journal  of  Science  for  January,  1860,  page  120;  and  in  the/ 
work  of  Fftvre  now  before  us  the  whole  matter  is  discussed 
greét  length  in  Chapter  XXX.  Tbe  anthracitic  system  of  tlie 
Alps,  as  recognized  by  Gras,  was  by  him  estimàted  to  haye  a 
thickness  of  from  25,000  to  30,000  feet,  and  included,  bésides 
the  dolomites  and  gypsums  now  referred  by,  Favre  to'tWe  trias, 
cod-plants  and  layers  of  anthracite,  together  with  bniestones 
holrting  belemnites  of  jurassic  âge.  Included  iny4his  great 
System  were,  moreover,  gneissic,  micacebus,  and  ttlcose  rocks, 
with  graphite,  serpentine,  euphotide,  etc.,  ail  or  which  were 
re^rded.  by  Gras  as  formed  by  tbe  kcal  alter^lon  of  portions 


\ 


-s...^ 


/  ■■r-r-n 


XIV.  ]° 


THE  GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPS. 


333 
of  the  anthraciticVtem.     To  this  was  added  in  1860  th. 

ZZ         ^t- Juhen  m  Maunenne.    This  fact  was,  however  in 
accordance  with  th^  conclusion  previously  reached  by  slsmonda 

ZaZZ'^'^f^  ''  ^""^"^^'  '''^'  "'he  plants  of  rot 
boitilereUs  penod  were  utill  flourishin»  wh.L'  fî, 

deposftlng  the  rocks  o^tLe  nuZS  ^en^  ^   ''^  ^''^ 
Iheçquestion  involyad  in  this  controversy  had  more  than  a 
local  interest,  since  it  touched  the  very  bases  of  mW    i 
by  pi^ending  that  in  the  Alps  the  kws^f "u  1^^^^^^^ 

SaT;^^  ^rZy  rïsr/^"^  f  :  Pala^o^icTthe 

the  sugg^tion  of  V^z  that  th    '        ""  ^"^  ^™"'"^*  ''^^'"^ 

^     be  expîained  by  nlells  tf  ^h?  ^T^l'  '^"'"^""  "^^«^^ 

aùown  that  thèse  tnassic  rocks  were  interpôsed  at  Petit-Cœur 

.    between  the  hn^estones  holding  belemnitesTd  the  sch   ts  with 

oal-plants.     In  1861,  the  Geological  Society  of  Fmnce  hell  iS 

extraonlina,^  session  at  St.  Jean  in  Maunenne,  and  there  alao 

he  succession  was  made  clearly  évident,  as  foUows  :   nummu- 

iitic,  hassic,  mfra-liassic,  triassic,  and  carboniferous  :  the  last 

resting  on  crystalline  schists.  • 

Attempts  had  been  made  to  sustein  the  supposed  jumssic  âge 

at  least  of  the  coàî-plants  wére  juiBssic  forms  ;  but  Heer,  who 
had  long  inainyned  the  contrary,  published  in  1863  a  further 
study  of  the  fossil  flora  of  Switzerland  and  Savoy,  in  which 
he  Bhowed  ^at  of  sixty  species  fourteen  are  peculkr  to  thèse 
^gions,  while  forty-six  belong  to  the  carbonife«,us  flom  of 
^urope,  and  twenty-seven  are  common  .vith  thât  of  North 
Amenca  One  species  only  has  been  identified  as  of  liassic  âge. 
namely,  OdorUopterû,  cycadea  Brongn..  and  is  found  in  a  localité 
Jiear  imaaaic  belemnites,  but  aâsociated  with  no  other  plant  , 


irij'ii'-.^jkiir  Cas-  ,  *i«'^.  V      »-  \ 


334 


THE   GEOLOGY   OT  THE  ALPS. 


[XIV. 


Both  Lory  and  Pillet  now  admit  with  Favre  that  the  sup- 
posed  paleontoïogical  anomalies  of  tliis  région  hâve  no  exist- 
ence, and  that  this  anthracitic  System  includes  carboniferous, 
jurassic,  and  nummulitic  strata  inverted  and  folded  upon  them- 
selves  ;  nor  is  it  without  reasou  that  Lory  in  this  connection 
remarks  upon  "  the  illusions  without  number  to  which  a  purely 
stratigraphical  study  of  the  Alps  may  give  lise."  To  this  we 
may  add  the  judgment  of  Dumpnt,  in  discussing  the  disturbed 
and  inverted  anthracite  System  of  the  Ardennes,  that  for  régions 
thus  affected  "  we  cannot  establish  the  relative  âge  of  the  rocks 
from  their  inclination  or  their  superposition."   ' 

Thèse  conclusions  were  not,  however,  admitted  by  Sismonda, 
who,  in  1866,  presented  t»  the  Eoyal  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Turin  an  elaborate  memoir  on  the  anthracite  system  of  the 
Alps.*  In  this,  while  admitting  at  Petit-Cœur  the  existence 
of  évidence  of  more  or  less  contortion,  rupture,  and  overridin" 
{enrÂevauchement)  of  the  strata,  he  still  maintains  that  the  an- 
thracitic System  of  Maurienue  and  Tarentaise  is  one  gteat  con- 
tinuons séries  of  jurassic  âge,  from  the  fundamental  gneiss  and 
protogine,  upon  which  it  imraediately  resta,  to  the  upper  mem- 
ber  in  which  occur  thick  beds  of  anthracite,  with  an  abundant 
carboniferous  flora,  which  he  assigna,  however,  to  the  middle 
oolite  (Oxfordian)  ;  the  great  mass  of  strata  below  being  re- 
ferred  to  the  lias.  He  then  particularly  indicated  the  line  of 
the  great  Mont  Cenis  tunnel,  which,  commencing  in  the  upper 
anthracitic  member,  should  pass  downward  through  the  quartz- 
ites  and  gypsums,  thence  through  talcose  schists  and  Imiestones, 
as  far  as  Bardonecchia.  Thèse  schists  and  limestones,  accord- 
ing  to  him,  are  in  "a  very  advanced  stage  of  metamorphisra," 
and  include  eruptive  serpentines,  with  euphotide,  8teatijte,.and 
other  magnesian  rocks. 

Since  the  completion  of  the  tunnel,  Messrs.  Sismonda  and  " 
Elie  de  Beaumont  hâve  presented  tp  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
of  Paris  an  extended  report  on  the  geological  résulta  ohtained 
in  this  great  work.  It  is  accompanied  by  a  description  of  134 
spécimens  of  the  rocks  collected  4  intervala  throughout  the  en- 
.  •  Mémoire  of  tlio  Acad.,  SecoM  Série»,  XXIV  S33. 


phal 

lime 

nodi 

of  r 

occas 

closi] 

occui 

of  1, 

correj 

princi 

■with 

pear  a 

the  tu 

^    encou] 

crysta] 

Acci 

throug 

cation, 

conclus 

Lory,-  0 

mentioi 

mesozoi 

te  plaç 

of  the 


T 


XIV.] 


% 


THE  GEOLOGY  OP  THE  ALPS. 


335 


tir^diBtanceofthe  tunnel,  which,itwmbo«,n,     r,      , 

from  iiejir  Modane  in  Savov  tn  R    7       ^«^embered,  passes 

(about  fifteen  miles  to  theT/thllf  r^"'"'''''    ^°  ''^^^"-"' 
^       of  12.220  mètres.     Th^d^u^nfl^     T  ^'''''^' '  ^^^^^ 
V    and  the  dip  of  the  strata  th^  ,     .     "'"  *"""«^  «  ^-  14°  W 

that  the  verticalnhickness  otZt"  T    "^"'^  ^^  calculation. 
Per  cent  of  the  distance  tmverld  ort'  "  T'  ''  "^^'^  «« 
7.000  mètres.     Of  thia  not  leTthan  5  «sT'^l  "7'^'^  ^'«"* 
the  Southern  extremity,  are  ZcnZlt  \T'^'^^'''''''^^' 
lesa^talcose  schists  with  cr^stS         ^  ^"'''^"'  '^"^  '"«'*  «r 

.  are  615  meti^s  in  thirnet  tÏ^"u   """t  ^^^^'^-     ^^«^«  ^hen, 
Phate  of  lime  (ka:.tenite)  "itï  t^!?     ?■'''  ^°'^^'^»^  «"l' 
lùnestot^e.     The  anhydnte  "ncw"  V  n  "'  ""'  ^^^«*^"- 
nodules,  with  dolomite.  cr^sl^^T^    t'""'  ^^'  '"^  ^^S^^-^ 
of  rocie^^lt.     This  wiT^e^a  bvX  "^P'"^'  «"^  ---« 
-airona%  alternating  wl^  «h  Ile  "'^'f-^'  ^"^'^^•*«' 
cIosmgvei,>s  and  ma^es  of  a^Zrite  tr  "'r*''  '^"'^  - 
occurs  m  the  séries  of  spécimens  abov«l      r""'^'"'^^^  ^reak 
of  1,707  mpti^s  from  the  nô^H^r'^"*^"^  ^'^^  distance 

con.spondingtoave:ilM::t'rofc  V'^  ^--^' 
pnncpally  sandstones.  conirWW  1  '  '"'*'*«'  ^«  ^«^'o 
^ith  anthracite.     Th;  ««1^^*^'' T  ^'^"i^ 

P-amongthocrystalCthrad^^^  "^'^'^  ^^ 

the  tunnel,  were  not  met  with  ^T^"''  "«ar  the  line  of 

encounte^d.    The  l^k  te:^trd\7fc  ""'^'^'^"^  ^^^ 
crystalline  limestones  "^'"^^'^  «*  ?ardonecchia  among  the 

-tion,  or  .petitil  i^  t tt^:  J  fc  «^  inve^ion.- dislo- 
conclusion  which  they  ,JnnT  h  f  "'"*""'  ^^  «*"»*«,  a 
I-^.  on  the  cont„^ry^^h7h«  ,  ^  ""H  ''^"*  '^'^ent^. 
-^entioned  in  loobW  In  t  the  ^^r'  "^^  ^'«^^^^  i-* 

r?'^.-nceivesrhLrinetetfr^  ^'"1"  "  '''^"^^ 
l^e  pla«ed  beneath  tïie  :  true  c^Ïlvl     T  *"^  ^'««'  «"^  to 

iÙk^okiyilJ.^^T^^ 

^^^  Tfâs  sénés  of  crystalline  rocks  is 


KÎ^^/^i''^$>b*^H    i.'^lfrji^i 


V        T-      fl  *#        t  -^^^a^^ii 


;«  -.  *\t!^. 


336 


THE  GEOLOGY  OP  THE  ALP8. 


[XIV. 


ê 


vory  conspicuous  along  the  southeast  side  of  Mont  Blanc  ex- 
tendmg  into  the  Valais,  and  is  regarded  by  Lory  as  a  peciliar 
modification  of  the  trias  and  lias,  so  ouonnously  thickened  and 
80  profoundly  altered  .«  to  be  very  unlike  thèse  ibmations  to 
the  northwest  of  Mont  Blanc.     In  this  view  ho  is  foUowed  bv 
Fawe  (§§  666,   753).      The  serpentines  and  related  rocks  of 
Ih^  senes  are  by  De  Beaumont,  Sismonda,  and  Lory  considered 
to  be  eniptive.     The  latter  speaks  of  ^ese  as  éruptions  coîi-. 
temporaneous  with  the  déposition  of  the  strata,  probably  ac- 
companied  by  émanations  which  effected  the  altération  of  tho 
sédiments.     According  to  Favre,  they  are  clearly  interstratified 
with  the  lustrous  ai^illo-talcose  schists,  micaceous  limestones  and 
qiiartzites  of  the  great  seHes,  and  are  by  him  piace^in  the  trias  " 
He  has  particulariy  described  those  of  Mont  Joret  and  those  of 
the  \al  de  Bruglié,  near  the  Petit  St.  Bernard,  where  they  are 
immediately  interstratified  with  greenish  schists,  and  associated 
with  steatite,  homblendic  and  gneissic  stmta.     The  serpentines 
of  Tanmge  m  the  Chablais,  to  the  northwest  of  Mont  Blanc 
he  also  classes  with  thèse  in  the  trias.    The  conclusions  of  Lory 
and  Favre  as  to  the  geological  âge  of  thèse  crystalline  schists 
and  bmestones  appear  to  us  untenable  in  the  light  of  Sismon- 
da's  investigations.     If  we  admit  with  the  latter  that  the  whole 
section  of  the  tunnel  represents  an  uninverted  séries,  and' with 
Favre  that  its  uppennost  and  uncrystalline  portion  at  Modano 
is  truly  of  carboniferous  âge,  it  is  clear  that  the  great  mass  of 
crystalline  schiste  which  underlie  the  latter  should  correspond 
more  or  less  completely  to  the  pre-carboniferous  crystalline  strata 
to  the  northwest  of  Mont  Blanc.     Among  thèse  latter,  in  fact, 
as  observed  by  Favre,  there  occùr  at  Col  Joli  and  Taninge  crys- 
talline limestones  and  talcose  schists  like  those  of  Maurienne. 
According  to  this  view,  which  harmonizes  the  conflicting  opin- 
ions, and  makea  the  crystalline  schists  and  limestones  of  tho 
southeast  pre-carboniferous,  the  anhydrites,  with   limestones, 
talcose  slates,  and  quartzites  seen  in  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel,  are 
not  the  équivalents  of  the  gypsum  and  cargneule  of  the  trias, 
but  may  correspond  to  the  anhydrites  which,  with  gypsum, 
dolomite,  serpentine  and  chloritic  slate,  are  met  with  in  the 
.pHmitive  schists  ofFahltm  in  Swedea.  -  ^-^^^ 


.:-.*,-J;.\-- 


XIV.  J 


THE  GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALP8. 


The  existence  of  créât  An^  r^      i     •  ''  *^ 

--y  parts  of  the  A^L  tlSl?'  n"  "'^"'  "'  ''^^  ^ 
ipg  cases  is  that  figu^d  bv  Mu^h  •  ^^  "^  ^'^^  "^««^  «t^k- 

246),  as  occurring  at  the'^  If  M  S^i  ^  ^^^^  «''«••^• 
Glarus.  8,000  feet  above  th^el  ^'^^''^^  '^  ^^e  canton  of 
P'ng  S.  S.  E.  at  a  high  an  J?  ""«^"Htic  beds,  dn^ 

Bucceeding  sandstone  (^5  wfn  "'"'"l^  °^^^^«'^  ^^  *"« 
nearly  horizontal  attitude  upon^^^^^^^  i«  a 

of  ha^  ju^ie  limestoLTer  a,^^^^^^^  ^'^  feet 

n^'caceous  schists.  which  are  hv  ir  .  '  '""*  ^^  *^««««  «nd 
those  which  underhe  thl  liL!:''^"  "^"'^«^  «s  sin^iiar  to 
This  n,ass  of  fly^eh  applarn^?rr.'\*''^  ^^«^  b«^«-- 
«tones,  which,  in  theirTrn  «rrLn  î  ^^  '^^^^  '^^^  '^^^ 
-nd  «.taceons  strata^  This  reS'^f  "'"''^' ^^^^««"^^^n 
ondaryand  older  crystaUine  Xt^  L"'"!^"^'^^"  '^^  «- 
Murchison,  in  accordance  with^«  '"'^  ''  "^P'^'^^d  by 

-  the  probable  r^ult  of  f^etl  an'fT"^  '''^-^-  ^«-«^ 
anticlinal.  Many  striking  exalr  .  .^^«^'«^««^ent  along  an 
by  Favre  in  the  LnityTf  TC  bUc  "^'^^^  ^^  ^--^e^ï 
Voirons,  near  Geneva,  shows  at  ih.r  ^^"  "^«"«tein  of  the 
cretaceous  n>cks,  «pon  which  j^^^'^  ,^'«^  ^-^d  by 
Simdar  phenomena  are  met  JT^T  "''  «"P^rimposed! 
Alps  ftom  Geneva  to  Austria,  and  #f  T'^  "^'^^  °^  *he 
«outhem  Bide,  in  Lombardy     Tht  "'  ^"^^^"^  «»  tl^e 

no.taea„3  confined  to  seconJaryand  tlT"'"!'  "'''^^'''  ^«  ^7 
%  of  Chamonix  the  secondl^?  t«rtwry  strata.  In  the  val- 
;;-aM  Mont  Blanc,  S^Cj'ZZt^^  '''  ''  *  ^'«^  -^^« 
Other  examples  of  the  8uperpo!^tioW  ^^T7'**"^^«  ««^ists. 
fossiliferous  Liments  hâve  Wn  'If  7'"^'  "^^^«^  *«  ^he 
-ont  in  the Cnnteins  of  O^^rand  J  '^  ^«  ^«  ^- 
I^ausse,  while  similar  ^es  W  Z    ''"^""'^  ^^  ^««7  and 

and  VonHauerinthee^eiX  ^d^T""^^'  '^  ^^^^ 
Porn,andothers  in  the  I>.neïï^  ^'^./^r"'' ""^  ^^"''^- 
*avre  i^«,ed  as  examples  ofTh«  .         ^^^  "^  «^  V 
aiready  noticed  in  so  mahy  Ll^  '^"'^  P~««««  of  inversion       . 
^iary  at«t«  of  the  ^S^f^^Z'  *^— »dary  and™ 
16        ^^    ^^  P'*''?^  to  contraôt  thèse 

V 


!iS,'i,(k5»'.Sl.  f 


^. 


338 


THE  GEOLOGY   OF  THE   ALP8. 


[XIV. 


examplea  with  that  of  the  gneiwes  with  chloritic  and  inicaceoua 
schists,  which  in  western  Scotlond,  according  -tq  Murchison, 
overlîe  foasiliferous  Lower  Silurian  beds,  and  are  by  him  itv 
garded  as  youngèr.  •  This,  upon  tlie  authority  of  Murchison, 
Favre  regarda  as  a  singular  ai>d  anomalods  fact.  It  sliould, 
howeve»,  be  said  that  this  view  of  MurchisOn  ia  rejjjc|«d  by 
Nicoll,  who  explaihs  the ,  appean^nces  as  the  resuit  of  disloca- 
jiion  and  oversliding  of  older  crystalline  schists  upon  the  new^r 
fossiliferous  beds,  in  which  case  the  western  Highlanda  will 
fôrm  no  exception  to  the  gênerai  h^w  of  similar  appearancQs  in 
the  Alps  and  Pyrénées.     (Ante,  pagtf  271.) 

The  facti  that  the  jur^ic  rocks  in  th&  valley  of  Chamonix 
pass  bënerfth  the  crystalline  schists  of  Mont  Blanc  w^a  lirst  iio- 
ticed  by  De  Saussure,  aud  was  afterwards  observed  by  Bergmann 
and  by  Bertrand,  who  argued  from  this  that  the  limes'tones  were 
older  than  the  gneiss.  Bertrand's  paper,  as  noticed  by  Favre, 
occiirs  in  the  Journal  des  Mines,  VII.  376  (1797-1798). 
Eater,  in  1824,  we  fiiid  Keferstein  inquiring  whether  thèse 
overlying  gneisses  and  protogines  might  nôt  be  altered  flysch 
(that  is,  eocene),  a  view  which  he  subsequently  maintained. 
Similar  yiews  hâve  foûndfavor  among  later  geologists  ;  we  lind 
..Murchison  asserting  the  eocene  aga  «f  certain  Alpine  gnei^es, 
mica-schists,  and  granités  ;  while  Lyell  has  suggested  that  the 
protogines,  gnetsses,  etc.,  of  the  Al^s  may  hâve  resulted  frora 
the  altération  both  of  secondary  and  tertiary  strata.  (Anniver- 
sary  Address  to  the  Geological  S<lciety,  1 850.)  Studer  has 
taught  that  the  flysch  ■^î  the  Grisons  has  been  changed  into 
crystalline  gneiss,  while  Rozetand  Foumet,  wrth  Lory  and  Sis- 
monda,  havé  assigned  to  the  jurassic  period  the  great  system  of 
gneisses,  with  talcose  and  micaceous  schists,  which  make  up 
Monts  Ceniq  and  Pelvoux,  and  much  of  the  mountains  on  the 
frontier  of  Piédmont  and  in  the  Valais.  * 

Hutton,  as  early  as  1788,  had  taught  that  what  he  called  the 
primary  schists  were  sédiments,  the  ruins  of  earlier  rocks  altered 
by  beat,  but  it^oes  not  appear  that  he  attempted  to  fix  the 
relative  âge  of  any  such  altered  rocks.  In  fact,  the  notion  of 
geolojgical  periods,  based  upoft  the  study  of  fossils,  was  not  as 


/. 


!*»' 


XI 


,t. 


THE   GEOLOOY  OF  TITE  ALPS. 


fo«8iii%ou8  liniestoaes  whiThll    k^^  *'«  newerfthan  the' 

J  W  ciîystal^i^,  r^j^  P«  ««d  elsewhere,  mto  gnoLea  and 

Pnt^Unc.  show  the  ««df^enZ "t^tl""  '"  ''^^  ^^^^^  "^ 
.fl«.  H.t,ng  unconfonna%  upo^u  '"^  *''''^  ''ofal  «tti- 

r  the  eocene.  both  inclusive  1  ^7  ^^  '^'  ^4'^iferons 
Joweven  the  carboniferous  i«  t    ♦         "^'^^    ^°  «»¥»y  parts 

J>a«ihfefou8  beds  lower  than  iL  ^r^    ^'  *'"^r  ^Jp«  no 
^anatioVwouId  appear  toï .  \^  T  «'^«^      Thes^ 

«Jbsidençe  whiah  pe^tted^Tn     ,    ^^^  '^«  ^—^oT 
fove  thjB  carboniLusatt^  JdT;t'Tr^^^^^^^^ 
«^t,.m  the  vicinity  of^oZ,'  ^t^^^  P^^^^^ 

^^Tothe,carboniferou8  belongat^Hu 

of  ValorsJfae,  which  includes  SbltV^     "°^.  ««"«^«"^-mte 

and  micaoeoua  achiat.  and  of  ^S  v     ^'.r'^^^^te/talcose. 

l-^whJchîareddi3b/teLri«dr  ''""^^^^^     ^he 

;^th  «ai^rof  the  pebble    rt^f  T""'^'''''' -^^^  identical 
d  «tinguiaà  thèse  fr^„,  'h  '  IS  ''/,r^*--  difficûît  to        . 
«fensurronndathepebbiewn^-     f  ,  ?'"  «brous  envelope       ' 
of  theae  b.da  with  oC  hoWi^f  ^,^*^,-«^  *^«  '^'«^-«on 
«^bonifemua  agePit  ia  «ft!       ^^^ '^°^  t^em  to  be'of 
!?^-  ^-^  of^^:^'  ^  f^,  difficuit  to  fix  tS . 


fc'*!i 


^^  -it  :<', 


^ 


^:.. 


340 


THE  GEOLOGY   OF  THE  ALP8. 


[XIV. 


v>\ 


portions  of  the  older  crystallme  schists,  which,  in  cases  where  * 
the  former  are  destitute  of  pebbles,  makes  it  impossible  to  disr- 
tinguish  between  the  two.  Necker,  in  like  manner,  asserted 
that  it  was  impossible  to  draw  a  line  of  démarcation,  and  was 
hence  led  to  assert  a  passage  from  the  one  to  the  other.  The 
same  close  resemblance  was  noticed  by  De  Saussure,  and  is  testi- 
tied  to  by  De  Mortillet  and  by  Sismonda,  who  says  of  the  feld- 
spathic  sandstone  (grès)  nd&r  St.  Jean  in  Maurienne,  that  "  un- 
less  we  take  care  we  run  thç  risk  of  being  deceived,  and  of 
confounding  it  with  gneiss  "  ;  while  elsewhere  similar  rocks 
assume  the  aspect  of  granits  ikim  the  prédominance  in  them  of 
feldspar.  Hence  it  has  happened  that  observers  like  Dolo- 
mieu  and  Bakewell  placeâ  the  anthracites  of  the  Alps  in  the 
mica-rslate  formation,  and  that  Berger  desfribed  as  a  "  veined 
granité  "  the  Aiguille  des  Posettes,  which,  according  to  Favre, 
consists  of  nearly  vertical  beds  of  carboniferous  sédiments. 
Ib  illustration  of  this  condition  of  things,  Favre  cites  the 
observation  of  Boulanger,  according  to  whom  the  triassic  sand- 
stones  of  the  department  of  Allier  are  made  up  of  quartz,  feld- 
spar, and  mica,  so  united  as  to  give  rise  to  a  sandstone  which 
would  be  taken  for  a  primitive  rock  but  for  the  occasional  prés- 
ence of  a  roUed  pebble  of  gnûlite.*  The  paste  of  this  Valor- 
sine  conglomerate,  which  seenis  identical  with  certain  of  the 
enclosed  pebbles,  appears,  according  to  Favre,  to  bave  undergone 
a  certain  rearrangement,  so  that  the  beds  of  thèse  "  prétendus  \ 
schists  cristallins  "  of  the  carboniferous  are  with  difficulty  dis- 
tinguished  from  the  "  vrais  schists  cristallins  "  upon  which  they 
rest  uuconformably.  I  insist  the  more  upon  thèse  détails,  be- 
cause  in  the  earlier  notice  of  Favre's  investigations  I  erroneously 
lepresented  him  as  inclnding  in  the  carboniferous  a  great  mass 
of  the  older  crystalline  schists. 

In  this  connection  we  may  cite  the  observation  of  Sedgwick, 
who  cites  similar  cases  of  lecomposed  rocks  in  Scotland,  "  which 
it  ia  n(^  always  possible  to  distinguish  from  the  parent  rock," 
and  lemarks  that  "  a  mechanical  rock  may  appea^highly  crys- 

*  Se«  Favre,  Temiiu  liaisiqne  et  kenperien,  etc.  (1859),  pp.  78,  79,  to 


liiUX^Éllt^l^ 


>M^Â,sâM'%iSâ^éM:Éià^ 


xrv.] 


THE  GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPS. 


341 


hiih  of  western  NewltfrTT  ''^^  '^  ^^^  Taconic 

It  would  hardi,  seeJ:  Itit^r^^^^tf  ^^r/^^^'  ''''> 
are  famUiar  to  ail  field-ceoloc.l!!i    1^  *"«"'^««  *«  fects  which 

it  not  that  tîeir  significance  ^    "^l'7*""^«  '"^'^«'  ^^^ 
Alpine  geology^  ^  "^  «^*  "^  connection  with 

theX'lttr^^^^^^^  ^ry^talline  rocks  in 

at  the  Cols  du  bonhomme  and  des  Fnnl  *"^'  ^^"« 

gâtes  aiso  noticbd  by  Sa  Ju^r  11  "^  ««y^talline-aggre- 
crystalline  rocks  ^Uct^ZZ  tl  T'^'^'T  ''''  ''^^' 
fied  bed3  to  be  of  infm-liassÎZ.Xt/  "'  '°*^'^*^"- 

Murchison,  maintained  tZ    h«  ,    '  ""  «PP«««on  to    . 

the  %3ch'(eocet)  :ittel\:n^^^^^^^  '^ 

Boue  r^eK^Ivtiof  2'"u  '^  ""^°'  ""  ''•' 

opposiHon  t.  ft^  ^^tZ  TTl^'^^tr::'-  *°'  ■? 

«neymatd,  that  thW  mav  be'  of  P.™^^°  '■""he  opinion  of 
««cinde,  th.t  we  l*ye  nTnrLf  „f  ^        .  "''  ^''"■*'"  "«»• 

«™  of  th«e  .y»^tTri:i  X"ino°8  "T r 

"«  iyrol,  of  a  Silunan  fauna,  intercalatcd  in  \^^     t 
green  chloritic  schiste  U  697  ^J^"^^  '"  ^«  «^  gray  and 
,n,„,T.a.^,   '^^^  (§  ^97  6).     The  gneiss  of  Mettenbach, 

t  Ibid.,  III.  334;  Geol.;  Jour.,  V.  210. 


m% 


Ji!k^^k»,iti«:}ti%i  %  -»  jt*'*  ■?)j' 


342 


THE  GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPS. 


[XIV. 


near  the  Jungfrau,  has  afforded  to  Favre  a  pale  green  ophicalce 
resembliug  that  of  the  Lauientian,  in  which  he  has  detected 
Eozoon  Canadense  (§  697  a).    Having  thus  declared  his  convic- 
tion of  the  great  antiquity  of  the  crystaUine  schists,  whose 
ruina  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  conglomerate  of  Valor- 
8ine,  he  proceeds  io  remark  that  "  the  part  played  by  the  Alps 
of  Savoy  by  that  mysterious  force  caUed  metamorphism,  to 
which  the  fonuation  of  the  crystaUine  schists  is  often  attributed, 
has  been  greatly  exaggerated."     He  adds,  «  I  hâve  always  been 
surpnsed  to  find  in  the  Alps  so  few  traces  of  this  pretended 
action,"  and  suggests  that  the  question  has  been  complicated  by 
the  resemblances  abèady^noted  between  the  crystaUine  schists 
and  the  recomposed  rocks  of  the  coal  measures  (§  697  e).     In 
the  same  spirit  he  declared  in  1859  that  there  are  "scarcely 
any  évidences  of  altération  afler  the  Valorsine  conglomerate  "  ; 
m  the  paste  of  which  he  admits  a  crystaUine  rearraugement,  by 
no  means  improbable.*      It  appears  inconsistent  with  thèse 
expressions  of  opinion  to  find  our  author  admitting  with  Lory 
the  triassic  and  jurassic  âge  of  the  great  mass  ot  lustrons  schists 
and  micaceous  Umestones  which  are  overlaid  by  the  carbonifer- 
ous  at  Modane,  and  at  varions  localities,  as  we  hâve  seen,  in- 
clude  serpentines,  steatites,  etc.     Our  author  feels  this  to  be  a 
difficulty,  and  speaks  of  tliese  serpentines,  unhke  those  of  the 
Montanvert,  the  AiguUles  Eouges,  etc.,  as  belonging  to  non- 
crystalline  formations,  a  character  which  can  hardly  be  ascribed 
.  to  them.     If,  however,  Sismonda  be  correct  in  placing  them 
below  rocks  which  are,  according  to  Favre,  true  coal  measures, 
thèse  serp^ines  and  steatites,  with  their  accompanying  schists 
and  limestones,  are,  as  we  hâve  already  shown,  in  the  same 
horizon  with  the  crystaUine  schists  to  the  northof  Mont  Blanc. 
The  origin  of  the  fan-like  structure  attributed  to  the  AJps 
by  nearly  ail  observers  since  the  time  of  De  Saussure,  and  cor- 
rectly  represented  in  the  sections  pubUshed  by  Studer  in  1851, 
and  by  Favre  in  1869,  is  explained  by  the  latterin  accordancé 
with  the  View  put  forward  by  Lory  in  1860.t    He  supposes 

*  TeitaiiM  liasoique  et  kenperien,  page  77. 
__J  Lory,  Description  géologique  da  DaB^uai^^ljQ,-;^:^ _ 


tfjttià^^fclf.^'lt'k^ilf^ 


^•snUt^i^Jii  liijijiî  ^Ki<  >Â^.  lA 


ÏJu- 


/- 


XIV.] 


THE  GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPS. 


,343 


^#re  foreibly  comoresse.!  hv  ./  ^  ,7  ^^'^^  t^e  deeper  portions 

-  troughs.and  are  more^Tr^Tov^^/tv  rT,""T' 
Such  a  synclinal  existe  in  the  ralhy^r^"  older  rocks, 
the  two  ruptured  an,?  ..  i  7  \  ,^  thanionix,  between 
Blanc  and  th^ient  In  iH  ^f  "^^"^^^«-ted  by  Mont 
l^as  given  a  2^71  .  ^""«^^t^^»  «^  thi«  structui^  Favre 

-iinLr.'a^^^^r2Th::r         -  *^^ 

terne,  rises  to  a  h^igl^  fATso  '  7^^^^^^"^«  ^^e  Col  d'An- 
Alpine  formations Xm  th!  tT.  ""!'  ""'^  ^^P'^^^  *"  the 
the  nummulitic  ^ed  11!  T^f '"^  "'  ^^^S^^-^.  overlying 
-ting  on  the  c^s^l^rlst  ^Thr""^"^'  ^^^^  ^  «- 
of  Pormena.,  and  in  the  fitv  nt  a"!/''!'  "^  '^^  ^«^«^* 
which  the  carboniferous  rocker  !  ««^bwest  base  of 

Ping  ben.th  the  ^ryZ^'ltZ^^^tZ'^]^^  '''{  ''^ 
nse  in  the  Aiguilles  Rouées  whiVl,  '  ^  *^^  "«^^«««t, 

b^a  including%ornble:drcwtLT.l^^  hills  of  ve^ical 
petrosdex,  ^clogite,  and  ser^tine  tT\  u"'"  "^^''  "^^^ 
guilles  r^es  2,944  mètres  aboCtbe'J,^^^^*.^^  '^'  ^^- 
metres  aUe  the  yalley  Tri  '^'"'^ '^'^''ï"^"*^^  l'892 

was  visited  by  Fa^  was  fo^^^^^^^  '^'^'^  -">™it,  which 

«trata.  consisting  at  the  t^p  Sabou;  thirt?""'  '^  '"'^^'^^^^ 
rassic  beds,  with  belemT„>/  °'  *''°"t  thirty-seven  mètres  of  ju- 

'««ting  upon  verti^i  7^^'  '"'^  ''^^^'  *^«  "«^«^^ 

enclosedabedofsalattllrorVr^^^        "'^^' 
over  the  vallev  of  Ph-m^      "mestone.     From  thence  we  pass 

of  Mont  Blanc,  to  flnd  the  JTiV  ^  ""*  "'^  *"  »™'°i' 


.■A,  Ji*. 


344 


THE  GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPS. 


[XIV. 


like  structure  attributed   to  this  last  is  questioned  by  Lory 
accordmg  to  whom  the  strata  of  this  mountain  dip  uniformly 
to  the  southeast,  arid  are  overlaid  by  the  great  mass  of  cmtal- 
line  talcose  sqhists  and  micaceous  limestones  assigned  by  him 
to  the  tnas  ;  but  apparently,  as  we  hâve  endeavored  to  show 
a  portion  of  the  pre-carboniferous  crystaUine  schists      Thèse 
rocks  are  well  displayed  further  on  in  the  mountain  of  Cra- 
mont,  and  are  regarded  by  Favre  as  identical  with  those  of 
Mont  Cems.*     Lory  conçoives  that  the  attitude  of  the  rocks  of 
Mont  Chétif  to  the  jurassic  strata  in  the  trough  at  the  southeast 
base  of  Mont  Blanc  is  due  to  a  great  fault  with  an  uplift,  which 
has  brought  ^hese  older  rocks  to  overUe  the  jurassic  beds. 

With  the  facts  before  us'  we  can  with  Favre  trace  the  hîstory 
of  Mont  Blanc  from  the  time  when  over  a  partiaUy  submemed 
région  of  gneiss  and  crystalline  schists  «fié  carboniferous  strata 
with  their  beds  of  coal  and  their  planl^remains  were  being  de- 
poslted  ;  many  of  the  strata  being  made  up  from  the  partially 
dismtegrated  crystaUine  schists  and  now  scarcely  distinguish- 
able  from  tbem.     After  some  disturbance,  the  secondary  forma- 
tions were  laid  down  unconformably  alike  over  the  carbonifei- 
.  ous  and  the  older  strata,  foUowed  by  the  nummulitic  beds  and 
their  overlying  sandstones  ;  the  whole,  from  the  base  of  the 
tnas,  having  in  this  region  an  aggregate  thickness  of  about 
1,250  mètres.     Subsequently  to  this  occurred  the  great  move- 
ments  which  threwjnto  folds  aU  of  thèse  strata,  enclosing,  as 
m  the  Tarentaise,  the  nummulites,  with  jurassic  and  carbonifer- 
ous fossils,  among  the  folds  of  the  crystaUine  schists.     This 
was  foUowed  by  great  denudation,  which  removed  from  the 
broken  anticUnals  the  secondary  rocks,  leaving,  however,  in  the 
horuontal  jurassic  beds  which  stUl  cap  the  Aiguilles  Rouges, 
an  évidence  of  the  former  spread  of  thèse  formations,  which 
once  extended  over  what  is  now  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc. 
It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  highest  portions  of  this  latter  do 
not  exhibit  the  underlying  gneiss,  but  are  capped  by  crystalline 
schists,  which  may  be  supposed  to  rest  upon  it,  as  do  the  sec- 

^  See  in  this   connection  Hébert,  Bull.  Soc.  Geol.  de  France  (2),  XXV. 


XIV.] 


THE  GEOLOGY  OP  THE  ALPS. 


345 


'^gion,  the  resuite  of  which  ÙZ       ,  T™""«  ««>«i«n  in  this 
miocène  sédiment  known  as  the  1  ,       "^'  *^'  ^'^'^^  '^'^««os  of 
thickness  ôf  more  than  2  000^7.       ^''''  '^  ««°ï«  Parts  a 
^0  asse  to  a  vertical  attitude  a7d  t   ^  "''''^  *^«  ^«^s  of 
It  18  worthy  of  note  that  the  ml  ""^"'"«tic  formation 

'^  "PPer  part  a  lacustrine  L'i!  ÎT  "^^"^^  ^"^^"'^^  - 
gyPBum.  and  by  Ugrntes.  ^''''  ^""^^^^  ^y  maris  with 

-Inat  the  nature  of  fho  f     i-, 
-tly  rep^^ented  1^  tt^s^L^;;-*"-  1  *^«  ^^P«  i«  - 
can,  we  think.  no  longer  admit  oïd^f''  ^"'^'  ^"^  ^--^> 
tion  was,  however.  possible    ^k    .       ""''*•     ^"«"'er  explana 
«de  toward  the  c^^  of  Ih^mt^^-^  «J  the  ^«^-n  ^t 
«onntains,   lyi„g   between  twoe^//^*!"^'-*^  synclinal 
"^ountain-structu,^  appears  nlt   to   b       '"*^*'^^^^^-     «uch  a 
-hère  the  undulations  are  modérât  .1^"—  -  ^giona      .. 
%,  fréquent  in  the  anthmcite^l  'Jp  '"'  "'"'"'^'''S  *°  ^^- 
.      don  m  WTales,  according  to  SedgS      f  ""«^^^"^^^    Snow- 
^-er.  in  the  Scottish  Highlands  t'  ^v  ^"  ^^'^''  «°d  Ben 
al«o  examples  of  this  strTtu^    C:"'"^  *^  ^"^^--^  a,, 
heing  composed  of  „ewer  st^^' ^uJTTu'''  ^"  ^^  ^^-e 
dip    he  older  formations.     Whe,,  ^i      '^'  '°  '''^''  «de, 
thonty  from  Bert^„d  and  K^t lin ^m''  f '^^''^«^^  ''^  «"- 
nmintained  that  the   crystallin?     \     ^"«^l^son  and  Lyell 
-wer  th,,  ,he  iimestoZfof  the'vÏ;  "'  ^""'  ^^^^  -- 
even  declared  them  to  be  l^d   s^'"'  ?  '''''''  «de,  and 
P-iod,  it  was  difficult  to  i.^^  Ljt  ""*'  "'  *'«  *«^«^^ 
than  a  synclinal  Mountain  ïïilar-n  ?  '"^^^"^  «J«« 

;n.-n  to  those  just  rnentioneT   HelT"'  ''"^^^"^  «^"d 


^^i.iju.'rtif^j,»  j«v.  'iihi  '  . 


■■,  f 


\. 


346 


THE  GEOLOGT  OF  THE  ALPS. 


[xrv. 


of  80-called  primitive  rook,  îs  really  an  altered  sedimentary 
deposit  more  récent  than  many  of  the  foasiliferous  strata  iipon 
their  flanks,  so  that  the  Alps,  as  a  whole,  hâve  a  gênerai  syn- 
clinal structure."  Thia  view  of  tlje  récent  âge  of  the  crystal- 
line  rocks  of  this  région,  supported  though  it  has  been  by  the 
authority  of  great  names,  must  now,  we  conceive,  be  abandoned, 
and  their  great  antiquity,  as  maiptained  by  the  learned  pro- 
fessoi;  of  Geneva,  admitted.  It  iowever  remains  tme  that  the 
extrusion  and  laying  bare  of  thèse  ancient  crystalline  rocks  is, 
as  we  hâve  seen,  an  event  geologically  very  récent. 

It  would  greatly  exceed  our -présent  limits  to  notice  our  au- 
thor's  learned  discussion  of  the  superficial  geology,  including 
the  glacial  phenomena,  of  the  Alpine  région.  His  views  upon 
some  of  the  most  keenly  controverted  questions  with  regard  to 
glacial  action  wUl  be  found  set  forth  in  his  letter  to  Sir  E.  I. 
Murchison  on  the  Origin  of  Alpine  Lakes  and  Valleys,  which 
appeared  in  the  London,  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin  Philosophical 
Magazine  for  March,  1865. 

This  beautiful  work  of  Professor  Favre  is  accompanied  by 
an  atlas  of  thirty-two  folio  plates,  embracing  maps,  sections, 
views,  and  figures  of  organic  remains,  which  elucidate  the  text 
in  a  very  complète  manner.  It  is  a  magnificent  monument  to 
the  industry,  acumen,  and  scientific  zeal  of  one  who  for  a  quar- 
ter  of  a  century  has  devoted  his  time  and  his  fortune  to  the 
pursuit  of  science,  and  has  worthily  completed  the  task  which 
his  illustrious  countryman  De  Saussure  conuuenced. 


V 


r 


•  "1 


•     * 


,*. 


XIV.] 


THE  GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALPa 


347 


O' 


APPENDIX. 

[The  crystalHne  rocks  in  the  linp  nf  ti,«.  tu-    .  «    . 

hâve  seen,  regaitJed  by  aU  obsédera  ^,^1/!^^  ^'°'  ^  ^^ 
Accoitling  to  Elle  de  iLumoTal^  q;!!  "1,  '''^''''  «t«»^- 

tact  with  them  near  Modane  Y^unaL^       ^T'  '*™'^  ^  «=«1^- 
«une  period.    Favre,  on  the  oth^r  hS'"^,  .^ ^' .^'""^^"8  *"  the 
boniferous  âge  of  th^  latter  Ml^J^tZ       inaintoining  the  car- 
iée strata  as  m^  récent  than  thl  .ïdln^  'T^^^^  '^^  ^"^^^^ï- 
tnassic.     ThesXnclusions  as   oTh;  J^' '?  ff'  ""  "^«^'°«T>ho8ed 
hâve  ventui^d  in  the  precedil  pl^^^V^'  ''^'"^^^^^  ^^^  I  ' 
compami  them  with  certain  anS  ri?  iV'"  ^T^""'  ''''^  ^'^^'^ 
navia.    A  letter  from  pSor  fIvI  7S  Ï.""!  ''^''''  «^  «'=«»^"- 
the  justice  of  my  strict^r^T  he  Z'    ^^    î^"^'  ''^''  "•^'^^ 
«re  altered  fossiliferous  stm  '  IL        T''^  '^^  "•^*'°»  *hat  they 
citing  the  recentlv  ™       ,      "    ^^^^^"^  *h^™  ^  «^  unknown  ac/ 
than'the  caZ  feZ "Td  JT  ^î  ""T"''  '''''  *^^^  ^^  ^- 
of  such  rocks  of  pZzo^  ^  tZ     P"'""""     ^^«  «"«*-- 
to  which  I  hâve  lor.,Z  Z^^ 'r::^'''''''''''''  ''''  ''-' 

the  atvT^^ranT  a^^r^Lri^r"  *°  '"^  '^-  ««  -P---Ï  - 

286-312),  as  to  the  ;  s:intlt^  f.  ""f  ^^^^^^ 
cent  strata  to  crystalline  echists     ™je  "  ot  ^  '"  T^  "^^^^  ^- 

vous  n'y  croyez  guère  niiisn,!     '  """^'^  ^"^  P'ai^'r  q«e 

cristallins  dont  oHiiS  IT  "'  '?!'  """«  ^^  '^^  -listes 
alt^i^s.  Je  suis  anlvéà  c  oL^  nJn  ''"*  "^'^  ''^''^^  Paléozoiques 
pour  les  terrains  eTlndZlZ!  ^^  "  ^"^  ^'  métamorphisme 
-ns  se  sont  d.po.srpen  XZXJT:^  tZ]::^^ 

Paœozoic  schists.    I  hâve  corne  toSieveThat^h  "^"^   v"*  '^'^  "*  '^^«'«i 
Phism  for  the  great  fondations,  «m4  tiTtaJ^  Jw?  "  ^'"'^  »'  "»  "»etan.or. 
-«-y  nearly  in  the  state  in  which  we 7^1^  '^TitTr  '"^  ^«P<«'t^"^ 

«^eni.      With  the  above  extract  from 


Q 


asâs^  jU.^-i  ^jW  î  -^  < 


-^v  'fo^  hji  -t 


348 


THE   GEOLOGY  OF  THE  ALP8. 


[XIV. 


He  then  proceecls  to  explain  his  view  that  the  cry«talline  schistB 
the  ilolomites  and  the  serpentines  hâve  been  depoTited  as  such  t; 
hâve  only  undergone  a  subséquent  molecular  ch4e,  such  as  I  hLve 
descnbed  on  pages  300  and  305  of  the  posent  vofume.  It  ia  gxati 
ly  ng  to  record  such  teetimony  to  the  views  I  hâve  so  long  Xo- 
cated,  rom  the  learned  geologist  of  Geneva,  who  has  devoteTht 
h  e  to  the  study  of  what  is  generally  regarded  as  the  classlc  lion 
of  rock-metaniorphism.  viooaii,  iej,ion 

The  dip  of  the  stf^a  of  the  whole  section  ^f  the  Mont  Cenis  Tun- 
nel  la  accordmg  to  Sf^onda  and  Elie  de  BeaumonVto  the  noX 
wes  ,  but  according  to  fVvxe  and  to  Pillet,  the  carboniferous  rocî^at 
Modane  dip  to  the  souÇ^v^rd,  suggesting  (what  might  hère  be  lookej 
for),  a  want  of  conforn^y  between  the'ciystalline  and  uncrstol 
hne  séries    The  ancien^iews  of  Elie  de  Beaumont  and  of  sfsZX 
according  to  whom  the  anthrac^ferous  rocks  of  this  région  be W  to 
,  single  great  séries  of  jur^ssic  âge,  which  includes  atlhe  saine  tC 
ZS    L     "'''  '  carboniferous  flora.  a  junissic  fauna,  and  num! 
mulitic  beds,  appear  to  be  stiU  maintained  by  thèse  geolo<rists  and 
are  set  forth  by  De  Beaumont  in  a  communication  to  tjif  Fr^nch 
Academy  of  Science,  in  1871,  on  the  rocks  of  the  Mont  Cenis  Tun- 
nel.    The  publication  of  this  in  the  Comptes'  Rendus  called  forth 
an  energetic  protest  from  Pillet  in  behalf  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences of  Savoy,  in  December,  1871.     He  ther«  complains  of  the 
pereistent  maintenance  of  views  which  he  déclares  to  hâve  been  set 
aside  by  the  labors  of  Favre  and  others,  as  shown  in  the  work  re- 
viewed  above,  and  adds:  «The  opening  of  the  Mont  Cenis  Tuimel 
might  hâve  been  expected  to  put  an  end  to  the  discussion,  since  we 
see  at  St.  André,  near  Modane,  the  primitive  granitic  rock  overlaid 
by  the  coal  formation  with  anthracite,  by  the  trias,  and  by  the 
hassic  schists  with  belemnites,  ail  placed  in  their  normal  order  and 
Buccession."] 

Favre'8  letter  to  me,  written  in  Febmary.  1872.  may  be  compa,^  Gttmbel's 
Tl, rSi        "*  «^  ""»«  t«  I»6«  306.  from  his^etter  to  me,  also  written 


i 


m^:^. 


XV. 
AJNU  hILURIAN  IN  GEOLOGY 

complète  without  an  account  of  f^         """^  ^""''*»  "^k»  ofthe  Old  Wn,M 

rocks  of  North  Am„  .•'"""'  »'  the  progregs  of  our  kno»iJ  "'^'^  ''"»  "»' 

«'■'portant  ch^Kli^h""''  ''*^'"'"'  "'  ««=''  "^v^tiltorÏ  Îk    '  ''"•^•"»^'"^'>  to  set 

--..ete..a.a.^crr^L;-r3eiin:L^^^ 

eount' Ytr;:^J^^^^^^^  ^;«owi„g  ^^es  to  giv.  a  concise  ac- 

be  divided  into  three  parts  TtJv  ^^^''^  may  natui^Uy 
Upper  Cambrian  in  gC  Brif  .^'*''^  '^  Silurian  and 
That  of  the  still  m  **'"  ^'^"^    1831   to  1854-  o 


j    Ju. 


.i^r 


V^*'-^ 


350 


CAMBRUN  AND  SILUBIAN  m   EUROPE. 


[XV. 


zoic  fauna;  3.   The  hiatôry  of  the  lower  palœozoic  rocka  of 
North  America. 

I.    SiLUBIAN   AND   UppERjCaMBBIAN   IN    GreaT   BhITAIN. 

Less  than  forty  yeara  since,  the  various  uiicry^talline  sedi- 
mentary  rocks  beneath  the  coal-formation  in  Great  Britain  and' 
in  continental  Europe  were  classed  together  under  the  conunon 
name  of  graywacke  or  grauwacké,  a  term  adopted  by  geoîôgists 
from  German  niiners,  and  originaUy  applied  to  sandstones  and 
other  coarse  sedimentary'deposits,  but  extended  so  as  to  include 
associated  argiUites  and  limestones.     Some  progress  had  been 
made  in  the  study  of  this  great  Graywacke  formation,  as  it 
was  caUed,  and  organic  remains  had  been  described  from  vari-  ' 
ous  parts  of  it  ;  but  to  two  feritish  geologists  was  reserved  the 
.    honor  of  bringing  order  out  of  this  hitherto  confused  group  of 
strata,  and  establishing  on  stratigraphical  and  palœontological 
grounds  a  succession  and  a  geological  nomenclature.      The 
wdrk  of  thèse  two  mvestigators  was  begun  independently  and 
simultaneously  in  différent  parts  of  Great  Britain.     In  1831 
and  1832,  Sedgwiok,  aided  in  the  eàrly  part  of  his  labors  by 
Mr.  Charles  Darwin,  made  a  careful  section  of  the  rocks  of 
North  Wales  from  the  Menai  Strait  across  the  range  of  Snow- 
don  to  the  Berwyn  hills,  thus  traversing  in  a  southeastem  di- 
rection Caemarvon,  Denbigh,  and  Merionethshire.   Already,  he 
tells  us,  he  had  in  1831  made  out  the  relations  of  the  Bangor 
group  (including  the  Llanberris  slatea  and.the  overlying  Har- 
lech  grits),  and  showed  that  the  fossUiferods  strata  of  Snowdon 
occupy  a  synclinal,  and  are  stratigrÀphicaUy  several  thousand 
feet  above  the  horizon  of  the  latter.     FoUowing  up  this  investi-    ► 
gation  in  1832,  he  established  the  great  Merioneth  anticlinal, 
which  brings  up  the  lower  rocks  on  the  southeast  side  of  Snow- 
don, and  is  the  key  to  the  structure  of  North  Wàles.     From 
thèse,  as  a  base,  he  constructed  a  section  along  the  line  already 
mdicated,  over  Great  Arenig  to  the  Bala  Uystone,  the  whole 
forming  an  ascending  sfties  of  enopnous  thickness.     This 
limestone  in  the  Berwyn  hills  is  overlaid  by  m*ny  thousand 
.  feet  of  strata  as  we  prbceed  eastward  along  the  Une  of  section. 


V 


XV.] 


; 


^„     iP,     EUROPE.  ^\K^ 

8no>nIon,  a  synclinal  structu^  \^"^^^.  «^ain,  like  that  of 
lunestone  of  Ikla  re»ppeai«  on  ih        !  '^''^^^nce  of  this,  the 

Phyries.  Thèse  «suite  wif l  ?  ^  '"""' «^  '^^^  and  por 
.  I^ritish  Association  t;  T.     Id  ^  "^"  '""«^*  «-^^  '"« 

-meeting  at  Oxfo«l,  in  1832  buIoT^l"'  -^"«"^  «'^  ^^a 
«ccount  of  the  cornieatL  .f  «!'[  ^ï^^^  ^^  ^-^^^ect 
appea«  in  the  P«,ceeding8  of  the  a  ^''^  "'^  ^"  «''«^ion 
th.s  time  give  any  distin'tive  nam^ir^  «\^'^  »«*  «^^ 
question.     (L.  V  &  T)  p,  ,     "*       ^  t^o  séries  ofWks  in 

HeanwhiL,  ^î  l^l^  ';if  ^tJ^^JJ  <'^'  ^^^^^^K 
exammation  of  the  «,cks  on  îhe  W  W       T^^"'"  '^  "^ 
border  of  Badnoi^hire.     In  the  Z\  Y^''  "^""^  *^«  ««"t^ern 
his  researches  through  this  and  th«     ,•     "'  ^^"^  ^«  «^^«nJed 
ford  and   Salop,  dLngi^'^^^^f -"«-unties  of  He,^ 
geological  formations   ^W?^    °  **"''  ^«^0°  ^ur  sepamte 
Thèse  formations  we^^o  Jv^TT.  '^  ^^^^^  S 
-estward,  across   the  c^un^  ;f  bI'  '^  '^^'^  *«  ^^e  southi 
thus  forming  a  belt  of  foss^hTro'!  !. T"  ""'^  Caennart,hen  ; 
Shr^wsbury  to  the  mouth  of  tT         "  '*'^*^^'^»  ^^^  «ear 
aboutonehundrèd  m^e^  aW  r^''  '''"^^' »*  ^^«t-^ce  ^f 

g-t  Old  Eed  sandsto^e  forlton  Tf""'  ""^«^  «^  *»>« 
the  west  of  England  ''^"^'^od»  as  it  was  then  calied,  of 

-^^yL:?J:^rr;^-rroh^..on^ 

P^ented  by  hinx  to  the  Geolo^^l  L^r^T  ^"  *^°  P*P«« 

î^*",^"«d  as  follows  in  diseendini    l      ^°™*«on8  wei« 
Wenlock;  constituting  toLt.»     ^  °"^''=    ^-  ^"^^«^>  2. 
4.  Llandeiio  (or  Builth)  rSTnea  7' "  ^"^^  '^  ^-«^-^ 
^dedo  fonnation.  ac:cordi^/rh^  l^'T  f^^^'     The  Llan- 
•^caUed  the  Longmynd  ani  LsZT  'ï'"^^"^  '^  ^^«*  ^e 
erou^  strata  of  the  Longmyndlm^   «r^'"     ^^«  °on-fossilif- 
««  nsing  up.to  thé  ea«t  f^rwèath 7.    tT^'^''*  ^«'^  ^escfibed 

.?P^flg a,^aia South  Wd^"^*^^^^  aidas 

"tues  ai  me  samn  fTo«i«™-— 1  .     . 


__^^flga,^a  ia  South  Wd^"^^ 

*vaies  at  the  same  geological  horizon, 


,>^' 


\ 


a 


.      1  ^  ,  „ai5,« 


352 


CAMBRIAN  AND  SILtJBIAN  IN   EUROPE. 


[XV, 


A 


ai  lj#»«itaden  in  Breconahire,  and  tu  the  west  of  Llandovery  in 
Càermarthenshiro  ;  constituting  an  underlying  séries  of  con- 
torted  slaty  rocks  mtiny  tHousandfeet  in  thickneHS,  and  desti- 
tiite  of  organic  remains.  The  position  of  thèse  rocks  in  South 
Wales  was,  howerer,  to  the  nor;thwest,  while  the  strata  of  tho 
Longmynd,  as  we  hâve  seen,  appear  to  the  east  of  the  fossilif- 
erous  formations. 

In  the  L.  E.  &  D.  Philosophical  Magazine  for  July,  1835, 
Murchison  gave  to  the  four  formations  above  named  the  des- 
^  ignation  of  Silurian,  in  allusion,  as  is  well  known,  to  the  an- 
cient  British  tribe  of  the  Silures.     It  now  became  désirable  to 
find  a  suitable  name  for  the  gr«at  inferior  séries,  which,  accord- 
.ingto  Murchison,  rose  from  beneath  his  lowest  Silurian  forma- 
tions to  the  northwest,  an^  appeared  tô.  be-  widely  spread  in 
Wales.     Knowin^  that  Sedgwick  had-long'^en  engaged  in 
the  study  of  thèse  rocks,  Murchison,  as  he  tells  us,  urged  him 
to  give  1  tl^em  a  British  géographioal  Mn^o-     Sedgwick  accord- 
ingly  pro^osed  for  this  great  8erie^;5P*Welsh  rocks  the  appro- 
priato  (lesijrnation'  of  Cambrian,  which  was  at'once  adopted  by 
Murchison  for  the  strata  supposed  by  him  to  undérlie  his  Silu- 
rian System.     (Murchisoiï,  Anniv!  Address,  1842;  Proc.  Geol. 
Soc,  III.  644.)    This  was  almost  simultaneous  with  the  giving 
of  the  name  of  Silurian,  for  in  August,  1835,  Sedgwick  and 
Murchison  madè  communications  to  the  British  Association  at 
>  Dublin  on  Cambrian  and  Silurian  Rocks;     Thèse,  in  the  vol-r 
>1pme  of  Pjpoceedings  (pp.  59y  60),  appear  as  a  joint  paper, 
though  from  thé  text  they  #ould  seem"  to  hâve  heen  8epa|i>9ite, 
Sedgwick  then  described  tïîe"^  Cambrian  rocks  of  North 
as  including  three  divisions  :  Firstj  H^  Upper  Cambrian 
■    occupies  the  greater  part  of  the  chain  of  the  Berwyns, 
,    according  to  him,  it  was  connecte'd  with  the  Llandeilo  forma 
tipp  of  the  Silurian.     To  the  next  lower  division,  Sedgwick 
^aîii^^e  name  of  Middle  Cambrian,'  making  up  ail  the  higher 
^f  Cfemarvon  and'  Merionethshire,  and  including 
^  flagstpnes  of  this  région.     This  middle 
■  him,  anorded  a  few  otganic  remains,  as  at 
JMjtgJaferîor  division,  designated^  aa 


\.M 


Cjtv.] 


CAMBMAN  AND  SILUKIAN  IN  EUKOPt 


353 


exte„ded**„„.^  bjt"  *  „^"°  7-»  »"  «h»,„e„.,y 
elato  and  pornhvries   '™  X'"*  ^  "»  »""""'  of  the  A«,nig 

fonrf„™,.iotTU'h\e  hT^  ""^  """"f"""  "f  "■« 
■««.y  places  i„  SonTwa^!,  «  tTr'^'?",'»  »»-  - 
lined  tha  relation  „f  hrÏÏL^       °«<''»P™'  8«=iety,  de- 


w 


.  /^ 


b^uSe>d/ââ'ë*.«>'»''    t   t^-nL     t     1 


v^W*'    -. 


^J  -^     ^yyM^^ 


.  (\ 


;xW- 


354 


CAMBRIAN   AND   SILURIAN   IN   EUROPE. 


[XV. 


had  been  given  to  thèse  iiespectively,  Sedgwick  and  Murchison 
visited  toyether  the  principal  sections  of  thèse  rocks  from  Caer- 
marthenshire  to  Denbighshire.  The  greater  part  of  this  région 
was  then  unknown  to  Sedgwick,  but  had  been  already  studied 
by  Murchison,  who  interpreted  the  sections  to  his  companion 
in  conforniity  with  the  schenio  already  given  ;  according  to 
which  the  beds  of  the  Llandeilo  were  underlaid  by  the  slaty 
rocks  which  appear  along  their  northwestern  border.  Whoii, 
however,  they  entered  the  région  which  had  already  been  ex- 
amined  by  Sedgwick,  and  reached  the  section  on  the  east  side 
of  the  Berwyns,  the  fossiUferous  beds  of  Meifod  were  at  once 
pronounced  by  Murchison  to  be  typical  Caradoc,  while  others 
lu  the  vicinity  were  regarded  as  LlandeUo.  The  beds  of  Mei- 
fod had,  on  palœontological  grounds,  been  by  Sedgwick  identi- 
fied  with  those  of  Glyn  Ceirog,  which  are  seen  to  be  imniedi- 
ately  overlaid  by  Wenlock  rocks.  Thèse  déterminations  of 
Murchison  were,  as  Sedgwick  tells  us,  accepted  by  him  with 
great  reluctance,  inasmuch  as  they  involved  the  upper  part  of 
his  Cambrian  section  in  most  perplexing  difficulties.  When 
however,  they  crossed  togethér  the  Berwyli  chain  to  Bala,  the 
limestèijes  in  this  locality  were  found  to  contain  fossils  nearly 
agreeing  with  those  of  the  so-caUed  Caradoc  of  Meifod.  The 
examination  of  the  section  liere  presented  showed,  however, 
that  thèse  limestones  are  overlaid  by  a  séries  of  several  thou- 
sand  feet  of  strata,  bearing  no  resemblance  either  in  foesils  or 
in  physical  characters  to  the  Wenlock  formation,  which  over- 
lies  the  Caradoc  beds  of  Glyn  Ceirog.  This  séries,  was,  there- 
fore,  by  Murchison  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  rocks 
which,  in  South  Wales,  he  had  placed  beneath  the  Llandeilo, 
and  he  expressly  declared  that  the  Bala  group  could  not  be 
brought  within  the  limits  of  his  Silurian  System.  It  may  hère 
be  added  that  in  1842  Sedgwick  re-examined  this  .région, 
accompanied  by  that  skilled  palaeontologist,  Salter,  confirraing 
the  accuracy  of  his  former  sections,  and  showing,  moreover,  by 
the  évidence  of  fossils  that  the  beds  of  Meifod,  Glyn  Ceirog, 
and  Bala  are  very  nearly  on  one  parallel.  Yet,  with  the  evi- 
dence  of  the  fossils  before  him,  Muifthiaon,  in  1834,  placed 


.Mt^i  eoi.4i.li  vVts"  ^k-^iriti,    ,     r/<i  .  ,^%t^'is.i^^K&r^\\lis,a-iA\u   ^i.iiJ.Hi^^i'idUieiik.'^J^éàatîii^M^ 


%Xi  pilK 


XV.] 


CAMBRIAN  AND   SILURIAN   IN  EUROPE. 


355 


desisnale  the  rocks  i„  question  )         ^  ^''  W""'  '» 

Again,  in  enumeratin<>  in  thfl  «^m»  «ni:.        Murchison. 

again  msisted  upon  by  him  in  Ift-îS  T  i   lofi       .     ^^''  '"^^ 
Soc,  II.  679  :  III  5iL    V  .  ^^^^-     <^'^-  «««!• 

with  a  separate  man  numéro,,,     T  "^  ''"^""'^  ^"arto, 

The  su  Jssion  of  iheSn  ot^i  th  '  '^""^  ^^  ^"««'■^«• 
ciSely  that  already  set  forth  bv  th«  ' .?  ""  ^^'"'  ^««  P'^ 
-  1835  ;  being,  In  descend^  «^^^^^^^  '''''  -^  ^gain 
constituting  the  Upper  Silunan  i' ^  "^  ^"'^  Wenlock, 
(including  the  LoZ  Lhld2  l  .  ^''''^'''  ^"^  ^-'^^deUÔ 
lower  Silurian.  Thla^^d  ,  .1"'  ««Pe-stones),  the 
into  whieh  the  Lland^Hrsjf:'  ff^  *':  '^^"'"^'^  -^«' 
by  beds  of  passage     Mu,IT,  /""  *  *«»"«'«on  marked 

i-possible  to  Z  anf  ifne  oTs"     ?'  '"^'"'  *''^*  ^*  ^^      ^ 
-ological,  or  stratigraphie^?  btJrTK^'i  '''^''  "^'^'^'''Sical, 
beds  (LIandeiIo);nrthe  nlrtir  '^l  ^^  «^  *^«  «"«rian 
-hole  fonning/accorÎÎnVrhfrL^  C '''  ^-'"^^-the 

(^'lunan  System,  pages  266,  258.)    By  CambriaL 


-ÎV^l 


..'&->. .' 


^flteJjjteaS.A'»  ill^.Xi> 


356 


CAMBRIAN  AND   SILURIAN   IN   EUROPE. 


[XV. 


in  thia  connection  we  are  to  Onderstand  only  the  Upper  Cam- 
brian  or  liala  group  of  Sedgwick,  as  appears  from  the.express 
statement  of  Murchison,  who  alludes  to  the  Cainbrian  of  Sedg- 
wick as  including  ail  the  o\àit  slaty  rocks  of  Wales,  and  as 
divided  into  three  groups,  but  proceeds  to  say  that  in  his 
présent  work  (the  Siluriau  System)  he  shall  notice  only  the 
highest  of  thèse  three. 

Since  January,  1834,  when  Murchison  first  announced  the 
stratigraphical  relations  of  the  lower  division  of  yfbat  he  after- 
wards  called  the  Silurian  System,  the  aspect  of  the  case  had 
materially  changed.     This  division  was  no  longer  underlaid, 
both  to  the  east  in  Shropshire  and  to  the  west  in  Wales,  by  a 
great  unfossiliferous  séries.     His  observations  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Berwyn  hiUs  with  Sedgwick  in  1834,  and  the  subse- 
quently  published  statements  of  the  latter,  had  shown  that 
this  supposed  older  séries  was  not  without  fossils  ;  but  on  the 
contrary,  in  North  Wales,  at  least,  held  a  fauna  identical  with 
thàt  characterizing  the  Lower  Silurian.     Hence  thé  assertion  of 
Murchison  in  his  work  on  the  Silurian  System,  in  1839,  that  it 
was  not  possible  to  draw  any  Une  of  démarcation  between 
them.     The  position  was  very  embarrassing  to  the  author  of 
the  Silurian  System,  and,  for  the  moment,  not  less  so  to  the 
discoverer  of  the   Upper  Cambrian   séries.     Meanwhile,  the 
latter,  as  we  hâve  seen,  in  1842  re-examined  with  Salter  his 
Upper  Cambrian  sections  in  North  Wales,  and  satisfied  hftn- 
self  of  the  correctness,  both  structurally  and  palaeontologically, 
of  his  former  déterminations.     Murchison,  in  his  anniversary 
address  as  Président  of  the  Geological  Society  in  1842,  afler 
recounting,  as  we  hâve  already  done,  the  liistory  of  the  naming 
by  Sedgwick,  in  1835,  of  the  Cambrian  séries,  which  Murchi- 
son supposed  to  underlie  his  Silurian  System,  proceeded  as 
foUows  :  "  Nothing  précise  was  then  known  of  the  organic 
contents  of  this  lower  or  Cambrian  system  except  that  some  of 
the  fossils  contained  in  its  upper  members  in  certain  prominent 
localities  were  published  Lower  Silurian  species.     Meanwhile, 
by  adopting  the  word  Cambrian,  my  friend  and  myself  wero 
certain  that  whatever  might  prove  to  be  its  zoological  distino- 


XV.] 


CAMBEIAI.  AND   SILURLU.  IN  EUROPE, 


357 


;-  a^biguitj.eould  hereaft^lZ  T  "  ^^^iypes, 
to  a  descendmg  zocilogical  order  it  ',ii^  '  '  ^^'^'  i^owever, 
whether  there  was  ^ly  typll' f^^^T^^'^  *«  ^e  proved 

If  the  appeal  to  nature  shcThe  1         T  ^""'^'^  ''^^' 
then  at  was  clear  that  the  uZ  «^""^^«'«^  ^^  the  négative, 

J^  ifcharactemticnew forma  we;^^  P'-^tozoic  rocks; 

■ .      ^mbnan  nn^ks,  whoae  place  Z    ^'«^yfM  then  would  the 

-:t.^endingseries.haveakoLrow^r"  "^^"«^'«d  in  the 

'baae  would  necessarily  be  r.T^Y     *'"'^'  ^'^^  ^he  palœozoic 

fi-t  «f  thèse  altenJi.t  21  t' '""'""'"  '''^^ 
7«^,  if  the  fauna  o  tl  Sî  ''*^^"^''^''  «^  ^»  «^her 
Jdentical  with  that  of  the  Wsr-  ^""t  "^  '''"«^  <^  ^e 
ianguage.  "the  tenn  Calbriirit  ""'  f^?'  ^"  ^^^  «"tho^« 
^eal  claasification,  it  bewfn  T/"^' '" '^  "^«^  ^" -««%- 
I^ower  SUurian."     That  surh  w     fu  '^'^*'  '^"««yûious  with 

in.ui^,  M^^hison  t:^aZl7ttr\^'^'t^^ 
nouncements  already  niade  bv  ^J^y  ^  repeating  the  an- 
that  the  collections  LadXthffrf  "^   *'^^  ^"^   ^«38, 
fossiliferous  «trata  rth^Ïe^; ^^^.^^^^^^ 
and  other  Cambrian    tracts    we^  idlT  ^^' -^T  ^"''^^«^ 
Silurian  forms.     Thèse  Ttm^  ^tw         -^"^  ""'^^  *^«  ^^«' 
"  the  same  forms  of  Orfb        't    w'  "^'^'  '°^^^"  throughout 
-eks."     Itwrfurthe^de  la^Jt  TV"'  ^«^^  «""-n 
that  researches  iTZ^tymJ  '.T  "  ""«  '"^^^ 

conclusion  that  the  "S™  S  ?  T  ^""^  ^''^  *«  *he 
Silurian  Orthidœ  are  tCnuTu  i***  ^'''^'^«^^'-i^  by  Lot.er 
been  detect^d"      Tp^^  ^    ^^'  'î/^'^h  «i^nic  life  has 

Orthidshe,.^ferJd  to\?t  t'^  "'•  '*^'  '^  -^•)  The 
^m«tm«,  Daim  and  iL  •  !  "^""^  *^  ^""«••'  ^'^A"  '^«''^ 
Part  11/335 -337)  ""*""     ^'^««^  ^«^-   Survey,  HJ. 

'^rerd^^L^r^frf^^  ^^^  ^  ^e  mi. 


--cetha.W^'^.-^-^^^a^^ 


â^JX^1t''£4^4.  I 


.1.   tx^^Jb'  <lt^M 


358 


CAMBRIAN   AND   SILURIAN   IN   EUROPE. 


[XV. 


had  long  before  shown,  identical  with  those  of  MurcKîson's 
Lower  Silurian,  declared  that  Sedgwick  had  placed  tlie  Upper 
Cambrian,  in  which  the  Bala  beds  were  included,  beueath  the 
Silurian,  and  that  this  détermination  had  been  adopted  by  Mur- 
ehison  on  Sedgwick's  authority.     (Proc.  Geol.  Soc,  IV.   10.) 
This  statement   Murchison   snifered  to  pass  uncorrected  in  a 
complimentary.  revi«w  of  Sharpe's  paper  in  his  next  annual 
address  (1843).      Subsequently,  in  his  Siluria,  first  édition, 
page  25  (1854),  he  spolce  of  the  term  Cambrian  as  applied  (in 
1835)  by  Sedgwick  and  himself  "to  a  vast  succession  of  fossil- 
i/eroûs  strata  containing  undescribed  fossila,  the  whole  of  which 
were  supposed  to  rise  up  from  beneath  well-known  Silurian 
rocks.      The  govemment  g^logists  hâve   .shown   that    this 
supposed  order  of    superposition  was  erroneous,"   etc.      The 
italics  are  the  author's.     Such  language,   coupled  with   Mr. 
Sharpe's  assertion  noticed  above,  helped  to  fix  upon  Sedgwick 
the  responsibility  of  Murchison's  error.     Although  the  histori- 
cal  sketch,  which  précèdes,  clearfy  shows  the  real  position  of 
Sedgwick  in  the  matter,  we  may  quote  further  his  own  words  : 
"  I  bave  often  spoken  of  the  greaè  Upper  Cambrian  group  of 
North  Wales  as  inferior  to  the  Silurian  system, ....  on  the 
sole  authority  of  the  Lower  Silurian  sections,  and  the  author's 
many  times  repeated  explanations  of  them  before  they  were  pub» 
lished.    So  great  wa3  my  confidence  in  his  work,  that  I  received 
it  as  perfectly  established  truth  that  his  order  of  superposition 

was  unassailable I  asserted  again  and  again  that  the  Bala 

limestone  was  neai"  the  base  of  the  so-called  Upper  Cambrian 
group.  Murchison  asserted  and  illustrated  by  sections  the 
unvarying  fact  that  his  Llandeilo  flag  was  superior  to  the 
Upper  Cambrian  group.  There  w,&a  no  différence  between  us, 
until  his  Llandeilo  sections  were  proved  to  be  wrong."  (Philos. 
Mag.  (4),  VIII.  506.)  That  there  must  be  a  great  mistake 
either  in  Sedgwick's  or  in  Murchison's  sections  was  évident, 
and  the  govemment  surveyor*,  while  sustaining  the  correctness 
of  those  of  Sedgwick,  hâve  shown  the  sections  of  Murchison  to 
hâve  been  completely  erroneous. 

The  first  step  towards  an  exposure  of  the  errors  of  the  Silu- 


fi,^É^i*k-&^  Y'  I 


'  1    •  .  If'^îl. 


.  \y-\-^  l  .  *»    'i-  Î-. 


XV.] 


CAMB«UN  AxND   SILURIAN   IN   EUBOPE. 


359 


rian  sections  is,  however    Hno  t^  q  ^      •  , 

which  hâve  been^ai  ved  at  bv  th"  ""'  '^^  *'«  ^^^^^^ 

their  studies  of  the   ocks  il  al^    ««^^'""^ent  surveyo.  in 

overiaid  b,  .bout  3,300  .nd  «ÎZ/l^^rso"  Z'^i  T^^ 
Wongmg  to  thiB  formation.    Benwth  .1  °'^"""'' 

W,  in  asceoding  order  of  th.  «r.  •  ^^  Tie  second  mem. 
n-e  of  Ca'„«.„°„  ^V™  hy '>Ïrù,rr'  "^  **  "■« 
described  by  Mnrchison  under  the  nlS  Int  T  .""«"^^ 
May  Hill  sandstono     Tk   . .  /^^  ^'^  "t™  Horderloyand 

«.bfe,„ent,;°dtt  n;.rd\f  «,r*r  """^  '""^°'=  "- 

■"g  the  Mav  Hill  sand.tnn.        1  i.  '  "*"'  (institut- 

formation.  In  185?  Tf  ï  f  "  '""""'"  <"  ">«  Caradoo 
from  i..7a„„a.  !  tL  Z  HiU  T."  "^  ''"^"^  *»-" 
«.«  overiying  Wenloek  Ï»™  fcaZ^'r'^  "*"  ■'" 
«.ar  s  a  distinct  paWelogical  horil  "'"'"  '°""""°"'  '"^ 

«xist,  in  ShropshL^cjLr„!7'.'^ '''»»"''  """  'l'ère 
-l»nc  ;  the  latt^Mn  ,Z  'Z         ."""^  ""^  May  Hill  sand- 

«H  Ca^doe  p.,per  ^  Ba.  g^l^rd'l:;:^  "r^dovï;  ^^ 


aid^d)>i,.t&.j.tj. 


360 


CAMBKIAN  AND  SILUKIAN  IN   EUROPE. 


[XV. 


beds.  Again,  in  South  Wales,  near  BuUth,  the  May  Hill 
sandstone  or  Upper  Llandovery  rests  upon  Lower  Llandeilo 
beds  ;  while  at  Noeth  Grug  the  overlying  formation  is  traced 
transgpessively  from  the  Lower  Llandovery  across  the  Caradoc 
tjo  the  LlandeUd.  Thèse»  important  results  were  soon  con- 
firmed  by  Eamsay  and  by  Sedgwick.  (Ibid.,  4/  236.)  The 
May  HiU  sandstone  ofteo  includes,  near  its  base,  conglomerate 
beds  made  up  of  the  ruins  of  the  older  formation.  To  the 
uortheast,  in  the  typical  SUurian  countiy,  it  is  of  grfeat 
thickness  and  continuity,  but  graduaUy  thins  out  towardTthe 
Southwest.     ,,  ' 

There  exista,  moreover^anothôr  région  where  not  less  curîous 
discoveries  were  made.     Aboqt  forty  mUes  to  the  eastward  of 
the  typical  région  in  South  Wales  appéar  some   important 
areas  of  SUurian  rocks.  .  Thèse  are  the  Woolho^e  beds,  appèar- 
ing  through  the   Old   Red  sandstone,  and  the  deposits  of 
Abberley,  the  Malverns,  and  May  HUl,  rising  along  its  eastern 
border,  and  covered  along  their  ^eastern  bas^  by  the  newer 
Mesozoic  sandstone.     The  rocks  'of  thesé  localities  were   by 
Murchison  in  bis  Silurian  System  described  as  offering  the 
complète  séquence.  .  When,  however,  it  was  found  that  his 
Caradoc  included  two  unconformable  séries,  exàmination  showed 
that  thel^  was  no  représentative  of  the  ôlder  Caradoc  or  Bala 
group  in  thèse  ea8te^^  régions,  but  that  the  so-câlled  Caradoc 
was  nothing  but  the  Upper  Llandovery  or  May  Hill  sandstone. 
The    immediately   underlying  strata,   which  Murchison  had 
regarded  as  Llandeilo,  or  rather  as  the  beds  of  passage  from-> 
Llandeilo  to  Cambrian,  and  had  compared  with  the  northwest 
parts  of  the  Caermarthenshire  sections  (Silurian  System,  416), 
hâve  since  been  found  to  be  much  more  ancient  deposits,  of 
Middle  Cambrian  âge,  which  W  upon  the  crystjlJine  hypozoic 
rocks  of  the  Malverra,  and  are  unconformably  overlaid  by  the 
May  Hill  sandstone.     We  shall   again  revert  to  this  région, 
^vhich  bas  been  caréfuUy  studied  and  described  by  Professer 
John  Phillips.     (Mem.  GeoL  Sur.,  IL  Part  I.) 

What  then  was  the  value  and  the  significance  of  the  Silurian 
jections  of  Murchison,  when  examiued   in  the  light  of  the 


Nfe;: 


li^&^iS^àtii-iiifAAii  î^Jti 


XV.] 


CAMBBUN  AND   SILURÛN  IN  EUROPK 


361 


«sults  of  the  govenunent  surveyoz.î  Th«  t/  . 
havxng  throughout  the  chamcterislL.  ^*''^'""  '««^s, 
"Pon  by  Murchison,  ^ere  show"  ^^  !'  '"  ^"^^  "^^^^J 
eonfonnable  séries,  La  Z  ^Z^l^'  A^^,^-  «^  a  g^^t 
on  the  uptunied  edges  of  thi  Ë!!        '  /"  ^^^P^'"^'.  to  x^st 

and  in  the  isJand  of  i". L  "a  ~n      T     -^  *''  ^^ngula^flags. . 
exystalline   schists.     AccoX^ht^l^^  "^"  "^«  --"' 
System,  there  existed  beneath Iha  h         Tu"'  "^  *^«  «"«ri^n 
tion  .-g^.t  conformable  sets    f 'r  ''  ^ï'^  ^^^^^^^^  fo^^a- 
formation  passed,  and  fro^^LÎ    tlJt\  T'"  "^"^^  «- 
either  zodlogically,    .ir.^^^Z^J''^^  "^^l"^  ^^^^^-^l^^^ 
«equence,  determined  frorlhariL       ^'"l^^^^'^'^ally.      The 
tioas  in  the  valley  of  the  ïoZev  in  ?"  '"'^'t'^*^  ''^'^^  ««- 
y  Murchison,  for  seveL  ylS^bl^^'^T ^''^^^^^^^^  -  given 
location  of  his  ^ork  was  ^lu  ""  ^"^  '^^^  t^e  pub- 

;;e^oflags;  3;Ca.rinJ:":--  t^^"- ^  2.  Llan- 
Ï>ed8;  5.  Old  Red  sandstone  th!  .  ^  "^  """^  ^"^^«^ 
to  southeast.     WJiat    th^n  "Z'^''  ^'^"°  ^^«^  northwest 

^^ed.  underiying'Ï''i^^rd;ir:ndtd  ^-^^- 

Sedgwick,  with  the  aid  of  the  T^  ''^^^^^'"^"^«hable  from  it? 

-ered  the  question  int^^J^^T'  «""'«^^-^  ^as  an- 
J;3  Idéal  section  across  the  vly  «f   f  t"'"  "^"^'^^^^  ^ 
-    of  the  Bala  or  Caradoc  gn,up  ^  Z ,/  ^'  ,^°^'^^-     ^he  whole 
^est,  while  the  Llandezl^/'  !^  ^^  "ndulations  to  the  north- 
<^H-l  in  the  .vaUey,  and  are^  uo       ?  ^""  'PP^""  ^'«  ^^  ^nti- 
Portion  of  the  Bala      Thel!"'  ^^  *"  *^«  ««"^^east  by  a 
-utheast  side  of  the  anti  lifri^T  ''  *'"  ^""^  ^  ^^e 
overlapping  May  Hill  sandst.",!  ^theT"  Tlf^^'  '^  ^^^ 
fWe  upper  séries  whi^h  inrJ  S      ..     .    ''  °^*^«  unconform- 
^^\    (Philos.  Mag.   ^)    V m    /««^'^;f  ^^  -d  Ludlo. 
«outheast,  commencfng  fL  tJe  ni   /^^^   ^^^"«'^   *«   t^e 
cl^nal,  was  naade  by  ^Chln  th^c"'^!'"  ^^°"^  "^  ^^e  anti- 
feat  mass  of  «tmte  on  tÏÏ  n  II      ''"'"  '^^*«"'  ^^ile  the 

^t«d«,partially^i,rr^^^^ 

byliim  to  lie  beHeath  thelkncfZ       f  "'^'^  ^^  «»PPo««d 
^^  Uandedo,  and  was  called  Cambrian 


/\ 


362  CAMBRIAN   AND  8ILURIAN  IN   EUROPE.  [XV. 

(th.  Upper  Cambrian  of  Sedgwiok).  ïhese  rocks,  with  the 
Llandeilo  at  their  hise,  were,  in  fact,  identical  with  tlie  Bala 
«i-oup  studied  by  tho  latter  in  North  Wales,  aud  are  now 
cleariy  traced  througli  ail  the  iutermeUiafe  distance.  This  ia 
admitted  by  Murcliison,  who  says  :  "Thefirst  rectification  of 
this  erroneous.  view  was  made  in  1^2  by  Professor  Eamsay 
who  observed,  that  instead  of  being  succeeded  by  lower  rocks 
to  the  north  and  west,  the  Llandeilo  flags  folded  ovçr  in  tliose 
directions,  and  passed  under  superior  strata,  charged  with 
fossils  which  Mr.  Salter  recognized  as  well-known  types  of  the 
Caradoc  or  Bala  beds."      (SUuria,  4th  éd.,  p.  57,  foot-note.) 

The  true  order  of  -succesaion  in  South  Wales  was,  in  fact  :' 
1.  Llandeilo;   2.  Cambrian  (=i  Caradoc  or  Bala);  3.  Wenlock 
and  Ludlow';  4.  Old  Red  sandstone  ;  tiie  Caradoc  or  Bala  beds 
being  repeated  on  the  two  sides  of  the  anticlinal,  but  in  great 
part  concealed  on  the  southeast  side  by  the  overlapping  May 
Hdl  or  Upper  Llandovery  rocks.     Thèse  latter,  as  lias  been 
shown,  form  the^true  base  of  the  upper  séries  which,  in  the 
Silurian  sections,  was  represented  by  the  Wenlock  and  Ludlow. 
Murchison  had,^  a  strange  oversight,  completely  invertecî 
the  order  of  Kîs  lower  séries,  and  turned  the  inferior  members 
upside  down.     In  fact,  the  LlandeUo  flags,  instead  of  being,  as 
he  had  maintained,  superior  to  the  Cambrian  (Caradoc  or  Bala) 
beds,  were  really  inferior  to  them,  and  were  only  made  Silurian 
by  a  great  mistake.     The  Caradoc,  under  difierent  names)  was 
thus  made  to  do  duty  at  two.  horizons  in  the  Silurian  system, 
botli  below  and  above  the  Llandeilo  flags.     Nor.was  this  ail,' 
for  by  another  error,  as  we  hâve  seen,  the  Caradoc  in  the  latter 
position  was  made  to  include  the  Pentamerus  beds  of  tho  un- 
conformably  overlying  séries.      Thus   it   cleariy  appears  that 
with  the  exception  of  the  relation^  of  the  Wenlock  and  Lud- 
low beda  to  each  other  and  to  the  overiying  Old  Red  sand- 
stone, which  were  correctly  determined,  the  SUurian  system  of 
Murchison  was  altogether  incorrect,  and  was  moreover  based 
upon  a  séries  of  stratigraphical  mistakes  whieh  are  scarcely 
paralleled  in  the  history  of  geological  investigation. 

It  was  thus  that  the  Lower  Silurian  j\^impo8ed.  on  tha  _ 


li4d<ri!f's^>i2vrï^'J!^.àÀ..,w-'/    tâ.t^Çriit^t.^^.^^'^     "         X 


■  -f-  li     (.v^>.  i 


XV.J 


CAMB«UX  A»  S,L„„AK  m  EUBOPE. 


scientific  world  •  and  "  ^^^ 

sectional  évidence  upon  wl^ch  fw  7"  f  "'*  ""  ^^^'^--^  «r 
fii^t,  Positively  n^isundeid  »  ^M^"'^  ^«-'  ^-'^  the 
-ère,  aa  hos  since  been  fully  estabShl?/^'?"  """  -^*-"« 

tered  discussion  that  M^Tin  wS  M  '  ^«"  ^"^  "^^^it- 

-     ^T''*^'  ««^^"Pied  a  position  of  van  J^^  ^"«^Inson,  ia  n,any 

P;ofcs8or.  and  finaljy  saw  his  nami^  ?  '°''"'*  "'^  ^^'^"^^rid^e 

^lationsoftheg^up"^''^^'  ^"^  ^'^^^P'-ted  the  géologie 

(P-.Xrs::?v^^^^^^^^  Society  in  ...e,  IS,3 

«--iations  oft'heUpirctLlr^  ^ 

were  involved  had  not  been  ^l/      ^'''^''"  ^"'^"«»  rocks 
Murchison's  er..  in  It  ^^  t^t ^^^^  -^  '''^  ^'^^--^  "^ 
promise,  according  to  whichllvi^'  ^   F"'"^  P'"P°««d  a  com- 
to  the  base  of  theVenlo::;^ t^tfak^î  '''  ""'''  ^^'"^«^-«• 
Silunan;  while   that  of  Silurkn   i     n  r'"^' °^  ^«"^bro- 
^«nlock  and  LudJow  beds  anTf  1.       '^^  "^^^^^^^^  f«r  the 

;-e  of  Canlbrian  .ÙtureZ^^^^^^^^  '''  "^'^^  ''^ 
(including  what  wei^  subséquent  vn  ^^/^^«*'«i«g  group 
and  the  Tremadoc  slates^wn?!  fu  "''^  "''  ^^«^S^la  fla-^s 
f  ddle  Canibrian,  the  S^nTun^  ^^>^^  "-^-d  o,^ 
forth  Canibro^Silurian  •  7T        ^^'  Cambrian  being  ],ence 

.    be  cailed  Cambro^SUuriarand  "11?."^""^','  ^'^''^^  ^^  «1-"W 

^  Tins  compromise  was  i^jected  bv  V  T  ^'^'^  ^^  ^«"^l^rian. 

accompanying  the  fix.t  eS'  of 'hif  sf  •""'  "^"  ''^  *^-  -«P 

f-ision  of  the  Cambrian  namelv  t^'*^  ^"  '"*  *^«  ^--t 
io^vever.  t],e  relations  of  Ce^Pa  \      ^^'^  ^"^"P"     ^hen. 
-ade  known  by  the  discov^L  «f  Se«  ""  T'  '^^""«^  -^- 
---e^^,th.compro^;^Ï:tr 


V 


364 


CAMBRIAN  AND  SÎLURIAN  IN   EUROPK 


[XV. 


and  was  withdrawn  in  1854  by  Sedgwick,  who  reclaimed  fche 
nanie  of  Upper  Cambrian  for  hia  Bala  grohp. 

In  June,  1843,  Sedgwick  proposéd  thaKthe  whole  of  jtbe 
fossiliferous  rocks  below  the  horizon  of  the  Wenlock  should  be 
designated '"Protezoic,  and  on  the  29th  of  November,   1843, 
preaented  to  the  Geological  Society  an  elaborate  paper  on  the 
Older  Palaeozoic  (Protozoic)  Rocks  of  North  Wales,  with  a 
colored  geological   map.      This   paper,   which  embodied  the 
results  of  the  researchea  of  Sedgwick  and  Salter,  was  not, 
however,  published  at  length,  but  an  abstract  of  it  was  pre- 
pared  by  Mr.  Warburton,  then  président  of  the  society,  with  a 
reduced  copy  of  the  map.   '(Proc    GeoL  Soc,  IV.  212  and 
251  -  268  ;  aiso  Geol.  Jour.,  I.  5  -  22.)     In, this  map  of  Sedg- 
wick's  three  divisions  were  éstablished,  namely,  the^y^jozoic 
crystalline  schists  of  Caemarvonshire,  the  "  Protozoic  *^d, the 
"  Silurian."    On  the  legend  of  the  reduced  map,  as  pûblishèd 
by  the  Geological  Society,  thèse  latter  names  were  altered  so 
as  to  read  "  Lower  Silurian  (Protozoic)"  and  "  Upper  Silurian." 
Thèse  changes,  in  conformity  with  the  nomenclature  of  Mur- 
chison,   were,   it   is  unnecessary   to   say,  made  without  the 
knowledge  of  Sedgwick,  who  did  not  inspect  the  reduced  and 
altered  map  until  it  was  appealed  to  as  an  évidence  that  he  had 
abandoned  his  former  ground,  and  had  recognized  the  equiva- 
lency  of  the  whole  of  his  Cambrian  with  the  Lower  Silhrian  of 
Murchison,     The  reader  wiU  sympathize  with  the  indignation 
with  which  Sedgwick  déclares  that  his  map  was  "most  un- 
warrantably  tampered  witli,"  and  will,  moreover,  learn  with 
surprise  that  an  inspection  of  the  proof-sheets  of  Warburton's 
abstract  of  Sedgwick's  paper  was  refused  him,  notwithstanding 
his  repeated  solicitations.     The  story  of  ail  this,  and  finally  of 
the  refusai  to  print  in,  the  pages  of  the  Geological  Journal  the 
réclamations  of  the   vénérable  and   aggrieved  author,  make 
altogether  a   painful  chapter,   which   will   be   found  in  the 
PhUos.  Magazine  for  1854  ((4)  VII.  pp.  301-317,  359-370, 
and  483-506),  and  more   fully  in  the  Synopsis  of  British 
Palaeozoic  Eocks,   which  forma  the  Introduction  to  McCoy's 
British  Palœozoic  Fossils. 


i#« 


,^- 


»%l 


y^^^^t  t^jA  ^ujg'^aajB^^^I'SaM^'^^&.i.^  îU^^ 


..^, 


XV.] 


CAMBRIAN   AND   SILU8UN   IN   EUROPE. 


r 


365 

iand,  and  Lancashiro  •  wLi^K  „  '-"raDeriand,  Wostinore- 

same  volume  orthrGenW    .T'''  "^'"  "^  '^^«*™^^  ^^  ^he 

II.     MiDDLE  AND  LOWER  CambriaN 

and  describea  bv  ";".7'^^»"*'*^'-    "^7  "OT  also  stndied 
eatablihTil  ,822  ïr    ""  ^"T"''*"""""»-'.  L"'"- 

In  1826  .PpL^d'!  L-irv'Dt^^-rH'i  ,^r- 

thœe  Works  wp™  7  \ ^  '  T ^   ""  ?'»'«*  I^if»''"-)    In 


.'T- 


3GG 


CAMBRIAN   AND   SILURIAN   IN   EUHOPE. 


'[XV. 


nnd  Battus,  inclmling  Agnontm.oî  tho>^mo  author.     Hcnn- 
■while,  Ili8ing«!r  was  carefuUy  ètiulying  tho  strata  in   Avliich 
thèse  trilobito»rwer6  foiiml  in  Gothlan(l,-and  in  the  saino  year 
(1828)publislie(liirhi3  Aiiteckningar,  or  Xotes  on  tho  Thysicnl 
and  Gcognostical  Structiiro  of  Xorway  and 'S^^eden,  a  colored 
geological  niap  and  scctîon  of  thèse  rodks  as  they  occur  in  tho 
county  of  Skamborg  ;  where  three  spiall  circumscribod  areas  of 
nçiirly  horizontal  foesiliferous  stmta  aro-  shown  to  rest  upon  a 
lloor  of  old    crystallino  rocks,  in  some  parts  granitic  and  in 
olhers  gneisaic  in  character.     Tho  section  and  map,  as  given 
by  Iliainger,  sliow  tlio  succession  in  the  principal  arca  to  be  as 
follows,in.a8cending  order:  L  Granité  or  gneiss  ;  2.  Sandstone; 
3.  Aluni-*lates  ;  5.  Orthoccratite-limestones  ;  4.  Claj'-slates.    By 
a  curions  oversight  tho  colors  on  tlle  legend  aro  wrongly  ar-' 
nuiged  and  wrqngly  nun^ljered,  as  abovo  ;  for  in  tho  niaj)  and 
section  it  is  niadc  cle.ir  that  tho  succession  is  that  just  given, 
and  that  the  clay-slates  (4),  instead  of  being  içlow,  aro  abovô 
the  orthoceratite-liniGstonea  (5).    , 

In  1837,  Hisinger  published  his  great  work  on  tho  organic 
remains  of  Swedon,  entitled  Letliœa  Suedca^  (4to,  with  forty- 
two  plates).  In  this  he  gives  a  tabular  view,  in  descending 
ordeï,  of  the  rock-fonuations,  and  of  tho  various'geiïera  and 
^pecies  described.  The  rocks  jf  tho  areas  just  noticed  appear 
'  m  his  fourth  or  lowest  division,  undw  the  head  of  Forma- 
tioiies  trcutsitionis,  and  are  divided  as  follôws  :  — 

a.  Strata  calcarea  recentiora  Gottlandiœ. 

b.  Strata  schisti  afgillacei.  ~ 

c.  Strata  schisti  ahiininaris. 

d.  Strata  calcarea  antiquioi-a. 

e.  Strata  saxi  arenacei. 

The  succession  thus  given  was,  however,  erroneous,  and  proba-  ' 
bly,  like  the  mistake  in  tho  legend  of  the.  samo  author's  map 
just  nientj^)ned,  tho  resuit  of  inadvfertenco,  the  truo  position 
of  the  alum-slates  (c)  being  between  the  oldor  limestone  ((/) 
and  the  basai  sandstono  (e).  This  is  shown  both  by  Hisinger's 
map  of  1828,  and  by  the  ifestimony  of  ôubsequent  observers. 
In  Murchisou's  work  on  the  Geology  of  Eussia  in  Europe, 


*it.!  i»*    ,^3'iji.^M  ui^Sà,  '>tlî  j-s-ï*  «arf« 


XV.] 


CAMBRIAN  AND   SILURIAN   IK  EUROPE. 


3G7 


publiehed  in    1845    th^v,,  ;»     •         / 

count  of  his  visit  to  îh  •^'''"  ^^'^'  ^^  ''  ''!?•)  «n  ac- 

,    ^^P'oducediuthedifferénVn'  .5^'  °^  *'^«  «««"«"«.   i« 

-kulie,  onUo  t^^'^'^ToitT^-     ^^^«^"^«^ ^i- 
«>cks  delineatcd  on  iÙ  iTof  m  ''r' ""' '"^"^^'^ 

Kesting  upon  a  flat  re-wL  of  n     .       ^'^''  '^"^'  "''"«^'^J   <«• 
hâve,   aeconliag  to  MCh.w1^"'?"^^'"«•-•-*-^^^^  * 

litic  Blutes;  tJ,e  whole  séries  bein^  Hm  '*•  ^'^«k  grapto- 

thickno.,  and  capped  hy  e^upte^g^  1^  ^jf^«  ^*  - 
lugher  slates  there  are  foimd  in  «nn,  1  ?"  "^^""^  "'ese 
limestones  with  orthocert  1  îrilT!  ^"""^  f  ^""^^''"^'  «^^er 

«andstone  beds.  ^  Ac  e  h  S  J  .        ''''  "^'^'"'^  ^^  ^^in 

^      tain  the  fauna  of  thXl  J anTl    7  '"'  ^"'«*«"^  -"- 

thelowerlixnestonesar^pLïctk;    V  "^^^ 

nion     0  the   Bala  group  of  krth  Wales      tk.  7"'  "T' 
below  thèse,  howeyer  confiiin^^       "  jyaies.     ihe  alum-slatea 

above  described  by  Hisinçrer  .'nf»    •  uV  transition  rocks      ,• 

IWan  nun.e.ls.'c3nrf2  thf  b  ""'"^'f^^^^^   by 

fucoids  being  known  the^i;  J^T  "^^  «*^«'-  *han  ' 
named  fix^m  their  c  W '•.  ï'^'  '^^  '^'"«^"^"^  ««^en  we.^ 
wei^  as  foUows,  in  a^oend tTo!;  ^'"'"  ''  *"'«^^*-'  -bich 
-d  to  designlte  Z^Z  Tà^Z:  ^^,?  '^^-^  ^- 
coryphe;IV.  (BC)  Cei^topyge  /y^O  a4  ."'  ^^î  ""^"^ 
Tnnucleus;  VII.  (DE)  HarpeTVll/S^  r  ^ï"''  ^^^  ^^> 
the  i?.^^  0^e«or«^  (if.)  wasfoûnd ait^f^^  Cryp  on^nius.  In 
'io^es.    With  reeanl  to  Z    ^     ,        *be  alhed  genus  Para- 


Jhô  nam^  çf  d^u^^Z^  cnaractenstic  gejms  of  RegioUj^ 
'--  f^'^^^^rypk,^  proposed  for  ît  by  Corda  L  18477 


Mi%   , 


.•»J    l'W/V    ,    ,  i-J.  1 


.•ife,w.   #■> 


i> 


■^ 


368 


CAMBRIAN  AND  SILURIAN  m  EUROPE. 


"  ÎXV. 


•   0. 


as  synonymous  with  Zenker'a  iiame  of  Conocephalus  (Cono- 
cephalitea),  already  appropriated  to  a  genus  of  insects. 

Meanwhile,  the  similar  crustaceans  which  abound   ia  the 
transition  rocks  of  Bohemia  had  been  studied  and  described  by 
Hawle,  Corda,  and  Beyrich,  when  Barrande  began  his  admi- 
rable investigations  of  this  ancient  fauna  and  of  its  stratigraph- 
ical  relations.     He  soon  found  that  beneath  the  horizon  charac- 
terized  by  fossils  of  the  Bala  group  (Llandeilo  and  Caradoc) 
there  existed  in  Bohemia  a  séries  of  strata  distinguished  by  a 
remarkable  fauna,  entirely  distinct  from   anything  known  in 
Great  Britain,  but  closely  alUed  to  that  of  the  alum-slates  of 
^Scandinavia,   corresponding  i  to   Regiones    IL   and    III.    of 
.  Angelin.     To  this  he  gave  the  name  of  the  first  or  primordial 
fauna,  and  to  the  rocks  yielding  it  that  of  the  P^mordial  Zone, 
llesting  Upon  the  old  gueisses  of  Bohemia  appeisus  a  séries  of 
crystalline  schists  designated  by  Barrande  as  Éta^e  A,  overlaid 
by  a  séries  -o£  sandstones  and   conglomérâtes.  Étage  B,  upon 
which  reposeAhe  fossiliferoxis  argiUites  of  the  primoif^ial  zone, 
or  Etage  C.     ïhe  rocks  of  the  Etag§3  A  and  B  were  by  Bar- 
rande regarded  as  azoic,  but,  in  1861,  Fritsch  of  Prague,  after  a 
eareful  search,  discovered  in  certain  thin-bedded  sandstones -of 
B  the  traces  of  filled-up  vertical  double  tubes  ;  which,  accord- 
ing  to  Salter  (Mem.  Geol.  Sur.,  III.  243),  are  probably  the 
marks  of  annelides,  and  are  identical  with  tho'se  found  in  the 
rocks  of  the  Bangor  or  Longmynd   group  in  Great  Britain, 
which  will  be  shown  to  belong  to  the  primordial  zone.     It  is, 
therefore,  probable  that  the  Etage  B,  which  apparently  cor-' 
responds  to   the   Regio   Fucoidarum  or  basai  sandstone   ôf 
Scandiuavia,  should  itself  be  included  in  the  primordial  zone. 
It  may  hère  be  noticed  that  it  is  in  the  crystalline  schists  of  A 
that  Giimbel  has  found  Eozoon  Bavaricum.     To  the  Etage,  C  in 
Bohettiia,  Barrande  assigns  a  thickness  of  about  1,200  feet,  and 
to   this  his  first  fauna  is  confined,  while  in  the  succeeding 
divisions  he  distinguished  a  second  and  a  third,     The  second 
fauna,  which  characterizes  Etage  D,  corresponds  to'that  of  the 
Bala  group  ;  while  the  third  fauna,  belonging  to  the  Etages  E, 
F,  G,  and  H,  is  that  of  the  May  Hill,  Wenlock,  and  Ludlow 
formations  of  Great  Briiain. 


^Ji^''*ï.ji(^â&ë3àiflc  ^  J^^,  .(«^iïk...^^'li 


ÏV.]  CAMBEUN  AND  SILUEIAN  IN  EDllOPE.  369 

■i^Jigiana.        ihis  opinion  he  reiterated  in  1859      TJ,p««  f  h 

M^ti^phical  System  ;  td"j'a^r  1?^  '  f  * 

wmcn  is  tlje  bilunan  System."  /Tî„]i  q^„  n  i  j  "^u, 
XVI  529-545.)  AliJdy  in  1859  t  .  ^'°^^^  ^'•-  ^^X 
on  the  Silurian  S^m^f  BoheLia  Bal  !.  T^T      '"*  ""' 

Un  nf  fl,.  tTT  f       ?   «MMliferous  rocks  lymg  below  fts 
Mse  of  the  LJandeUo,  and  nnsnspected  bv  Ihe  aiiLr  J  ,1 

^u^Te-'T"".""?"  '"-'«■"■^^i^-i  îh":;„ws'' 

Bntan.    The  few  o,game  remuo»  mentioned  by  Sed™ck  in 

f  Sn^    în  ml  'Tf  '"v*"'  «'"'"»  <^""'"^  --'- 
""«^    !■>  1846,  Sedgmck,  in  Company  with  Mr  Davi. 

nZ.°:2  thèse  ^ks,  and  i„  Decemw'of  the^eylS 
descnbed  the  Lmgul.  beds  as  ovetlaid  by  the  Tremadoc  sb^ 

^nrsZr'ft""'"  ''°""-'  '»  Caerna^rtd lit 
^  ,g,  ^-^  '"'-"*- i^y.r^eêogwici:,  at  the  same       ~ 

X 


;«■ 


%\ii^ 


370  CAMBRIAN  AND  SILURIAN  IN   EUROPE.  [XV. 

time,  noticed  about  this  horizon  certain  graptolites  and  an 
Asaphus,  which  were  suppôsed  to  belong  to  the  Tremadoc 
slatea,  but  hâve  since  been  declared  by  Salter  to  pertain  to  the 
Arenig  or  Lower  LlandeUo  beds,  the  base  of  the  Upper  Cam- 
brian.     (Mem.  Geol.  Sur.,  III.  257,  and  Décade  II.) 

This  discovery  of  the  Lingula  flags,  as  they  were  then  named, 
and  the  fixing  by  Sedgwick  of  their  geological  horizon,  was  at 
once  followed  by  a  careful  examinatiou  of  them  by  the  goverri- 
ment  surveyors,  andj^  1847,  Selwyn  detected  in  the  Lingula 
flags,  near  Dolgelly,  in  Merionethshire,  the  remains  of  'two 
cnistacean  forms,  the  one  a  phyllopod,  which  lias  received  the 
name   of  HymenocarU   vermicauda,    Salter,  and  the   other  a 
trilobite  which  was  described  by  Salter  in   1849  as   Olenus 
micrurus.     (GeoL    Survey,    Décade  II.)     A   species   of  Para- 
doxides,  apparently  identical  with  F.   ForrJihammeri  of  Swe- 
den,  was   also  about  this   time  recognized    among   spécimens 
supposed  to  be  from  the  same  horizon.     It  has  since  been  de- 
scribed as  P.  Hicksii,  and  found  to  belong  to  the  basai  beds  of 
the  Lingula  flags,  —  the  Menevian  group. 

Upontheflanks  of  the  Malvern  Hills  there  is  found  lestin^ 
upon  the  ancient  crys&Uine  rocks  of  the  région,  and  overlaid 
by  the  Pentamerus  beds  of  the  May  Hill  sandstone  (originally 
called  Caradoc   by  Murchison)  a  séries  of  fossUiferous  bcls. 
Thèse  consist  in  their  lowest  part  of  about  600  feet  of  greenish 
sandstone,  which   hâve  .ince   yielded  an  Obolella  and  Serpii- 
htes,  and  are  overlaid  by  500  feet  of  black  schists.     In  thèse 
m  1842,  Professor  John  Phillips  found   the  remains  of  trilo- 
bites,  wliich   he  subsequently  described,   in   1848,   as  threo 
species  of  Olenus.     (Mem.   Geol.   Survey,   IL    Part   I.    55.) 
Thèse  black  shales,  which  had  not  at  that  time  fumished  any 
organic  remains,  were  by  Murchison  in  his  Silurian  System 
(p.  416)  m  1839   compared  to  the  supposed"  passage-beds  in 
Caermarthenshire  between  the  Dandeilo  and  the   Cambrian 
(Bala)  rocks  ;  which,  as  we  hâve  seen,  were  newer  and  not 
older  strata  than  the  Llandeilo  flags.     From  their  lithological 
characters,  ànd  their  relations  to  the  Pentamerus  beds,  thèse 
lower  fossiliferous  strata  of  Malvem  were  subsequently  refened 


^à^AÉùiV^A^*. 


'»i,iÈ&MMi  i 


*4^--i  .».«#^\\  ^^  fr\  Mj^  A'..* ^  ^f}^% 


XV.] 


CAMBEIA»  AKD  S,LVm^  J«  ,„„,^ 


371 


contm^ut,  came  to  England  S  ^h/  *^'  ^^^«^^««^^«  «f  tbe 

te  at  once  recogimed  in  ïl^i  .^"^,  ^^j^^^inavia,  and  which 
acterzzed    by  the  présence   of  .  K  ''^  "^^^'^  ^«^e  char- 

c  us  on  ^^  announced  by  SalterTfK    t>^''  ^"^Portant  con- 
iJeifast  in  1852.      (Ren    Bw.  V  "'^^  Association  at 

Buli.  Soc.  Geol  de  ^2)^xvA77\'    mT'  ^^    ^«'  -^ 

'^HoIlybushsandstones,arBbyHicwl?!^  knou^n  as  the 
respectively  of  the  DolgeUy  Ld  F.,^"^^  ^  ^^^  équivalente 

-The  pateontologicalXiewï'î       '  ^'^^"-     ^«-  ^-^ 

tbe  pnmordialchaS/of  ttlt^^^^^^^        ^^«^  -'^«-^ 
Jh.ch  make  up  the  Middie  C    '^'^'^reat  mass  of  strata 

Sedgwick  (consisting  of  the  f ^  ^'^^  ''  ^^*^'«S  g^o«P  of 
«^;H  led   him,  to%4t;  tri^  ««f, -d  the  T^madoc    , 
distmguished  on  naii,3        ,  ^  '"^^'^^«'^^^^     Thus  he 

.    I-/ng„]a  flaga  i^to  a  low^'à^d  ,n         '  ^^^"^  divided  the 
;^---on  of  thèse  distin  tiona  t^e  IT  P-^''""-      ^^  ^^e 

researches  led  to  the  divTsLnTf:  ^thL  f/^'  «"^-<î"«"t 
four  parts,  an  npper  niid2  ,  ,  "^"*^  ^'"^^  Aags  into 
^Jj>ol,eUy,  FeslLg't^ir''*^-'^-^  *^«  "-- 
^eJtinl867,andafoLr     ™"*^"'g  were  given  by  Mr 

'•"'  ■"'«■«nation  of  Monevi.»  denlL    ^^  ""''  '"<'''»•  "■"' 
»">»  of  8t  David',  in  pj^r^'ï^^  '"f»'  ^™» 

'  ^°''  *^-  ''•)    He  Included- 


îa*?ift»ur>.U  ■ 


•  \ 


372 


CAMBRIAN  AND   SILURIAN   IN   EUROPE. 


[XV. 


1862,  Salter  found  Paradoxides  with  Agnostua  and  lingula  in 
'  fine  black  shalea  at  the  base  of  the  Lingula  flags,  nesting  con- 
foraiably  on  the  green  and  purple  grits  of  the  Lower  Cambrian 
or  Harlech  beds.  The  locality  was  afterwards  carefuUy  studied 
by  Hicks,  and  it  was  soon  made  apparent  that  the  genus  Para- 
doxides, both  hère  and  in  North  Wales,  was  confined  to  a 
horizon  below  the  great  maas  of  the  Lingula  flags  ;  which,  on 
the  contrary,  are  characterized  by  numerous  species  of  Ole- 
nus.  Thèse  lower  or  Menevian  beds  are  hence  regarded  by 
Salter  as  équivalent  to  the  lowest  portion  of  the  Etage  C  of 
''Barrande. 

Beneath  thèse  Menevian  beds  there  lies,  in  apparent  con- 
formity,  the  great  Lower  Cambrian  séries,  frequently  called  the 
bottom  or  basement  rocks  by  the  gqvemment  surveyors  ;  rep- 
resented  in  North  Wales  by  the  Harlech  grits,  and  in  South 
Wales,  near  St.  David's,  by  a'^imilar  séries  of  green  and  purple 
sandstones,  considered  by  Murchison,  and  by  others,  as  the 
équivalent  of  the  Harlech  rocks.  They  were  still  supposed  to 
be  unfossiliferous  until  in  June,  1867,  Salter  and  Hicks  an- 
nounced  th«  discovery  in  the  red  beds  of  this  lower  séries,  at 
St.  David's,  of  a  Lingulella,  very  lîke  Z.  ferruginea  of  the 
,  Menevian.  (Geol.  Jour.,  XXIII.  339  ;  Siluria,  4th  éd.,  550.) 
This  led  to  a  furiher  examination  of  thèse  Lower  Cambrian 
beds,  which  has  resulted  in  the  discovery  in  them  of  a  fauna 
distinctly  primordial  in  type,  and  linked  by  t\e  présence  of 
several  identical  fossils  to  the  Menevian  ;  but  in  many  respects 
distinct,  and  marking  a  lower  fossiliferous  horizon  than  any- 
thing  known  in  Bohemia  ôr  in  Scandinavia. 

The  first  announcement  of  thèse  important  results  was  made 

nnder  the  name  of  Upper  Cambrian  the  Tremadoc  rocks  with  the  Lingiila. 
flags  proper,  which  he  divided  in  descending  order  into  three  parts,  Dolgelly, 
Festiniog,  and  Maentwrog;  while  he  suggested  the  union  of  the  basai  beds, 
(previonsly  separàted  under  the  name  of  Menevian,)  with  the  underlying 
Harlech  and  Bangor  rocks  as  Lower  Cambrian.  Thèse  divisions  of  Belt  are 
now  recognized  by  Hicks.  It  will  be  recoUected  that  the  whole  of  the 
Lingula  flags  were  originally  included  in  his  Festiniog  gronp  by  Sedgwick. 
AU  of  thèse  locks  are  inverted  in  the  vicinity  of  Dolgelly,  the  apparent 
succession  iu  descending  order  being  Festiniog,  Dolgelly,  Tremadoc,  and 
Arenig.] 


•^" 


XV.] 


CAMBRIAN  AND   SILURiIn  IN  EUROPE. 


373 


to  the  British  Association  at  Norwich  in  1  ftfi«      tt  ^u      , 

-    were,  however,  laid    befor«   fi,    7.   ?  ■^"'*^«'*  ^«^ils 

ISn,  by  Mesrs    Lkte^    nd  W^^^l   '""^^   "^  ^^^' 

Geological  Journal   for  Sovlbe^mi  '^.vT^  '"^  *^« 
The  Cambrian  sedin^ents   hl^^;  uf,        ^-        *    '"''^ 
■       erystalline  atratified   rocks    dlXdTv  T        7  """  ^' 
veyors  as  syenite  and  greenstone   aud  h.      ^^^  ^^"^^  '"" 
,  Btrike.     Lying  un^onform^ably  tpT^  thl  an7  ^.r'"'""* 
east  strike,  we  hâve  the  foUowlserierjn  1^^^^^  '  ""*^-" 
1.  Qiiartzose  conglomerate,  60  feet     2  0^      7^°  °"^''*-' 
atones,  460  feet  :  3  Eed  flL^  1  7  V  Z'  .^""«"'«^  %gy  sand- 

^r£.i~: ,^-^^^^   i::s;h"::di::s 

^*^m,andi>ro<o«.aWa  •  ^'T^^yP^' ^^rodtscus,  Agnmtm,    , 
Btones,.ith  -ToTth;lov7^^Z^too"?>^^ 
flaggy  beds,  150  feet,  with  plZZ2s     1\TV'  ^'^^ 
Ws,  richly  fossiliferous,  500  feet      T^î;.         '"!  ^«"«^^^n 

.    «^"^^^-tofthebaseof'i'ri;: tsE^^^^^^ 

are  conformablv  overlaid  h^  ti,    t  •  ^V'  '  ^^-  ^avid's 

^e   hâve,   mcl^Zt^V^"^"^^^^^^ 

and  also  bt  thfl  wpni,»  T>o    j     -j      ""^ugû  tùe  whole  séries: 
in  thèse  ^wer  sTraT  ^  ^'"^^^^^         '^'"'^  ''  ^^-^  -n      , 
characterizes  tL  LL^nl/r  *^'  ^'""^  ^^^°"«'  ^^ich 

tubercuCrtrilobrof  f!::r"'"^  ^'^«'^^  T«-^-^e 
-cks  the  nie  f  Ll^  ZS^'î'  '""''""  ^«^^^ 
h.  proposed  to  uni^tr^tr  ^^ThÏ  gre^  ^f 
and  to  make  the  summit  of  the  form^  L  ^    ^       ,    ^^'' 

^-    ,     '      -^^"^^^ûd  Mtddie^eambnan,  a  suggestion  which"^ 

m    '      '         ' 


374 


CAMBRIANAND   SILJJRIAN   IN   EUROPE. 


[XV. 


tas  been  adopted  by  LyelL     (Proc.  Brit.  Assoc.  for  1868,  p. 
.  •68,  and  Lyell,  Student's  Manual  of  Geology,  466  -  469.) 

Both  Phillips  and  LyteU  give  the  name  of  Upper  Cambrian 
to  the  Lingula  flags  and  tl>e  [Tremadoc  slates,  which  together 
constitute  the  Middle  Cambrfeii  of  Sedgwick,  and  concède  the 
title  of  Lower  Silurfan  to  the  Bala  group  or  Upper  Cambrian 
of  Sedgwick.  .  The  same  view  is  adopted  by  Linnarason  in 
Sweden,  who  places  the  Une  bet^een  Cambrian  and  Silurian 
at  the  base  of  the  LÏandeilo  or  the  second  fauna.  It  waîs  by 
foUomng  thèse  authorities  that  I,  inadvertently,  in  my  address 
to  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
in^^August,  1871,  gave  this  horizon  as  the  original  division 
between  Cambrian  and  Silurian.*  The  reader  of  thé  first  part 
of  this  paper  will  see  with  how  inuch  justifce'Sedgwick  claims 
for  the  Cambrian  the  whole  of  the  fipssiliferous  rocks  of  Wali^s 
beneath  the  base  of  the  May  Hill  sandstone,  including  both, 
the  first  and  the  second  fauna.  I  cannot  but  agrée  with  the 
late  Henry  Darwin  Rogers,  who,  in  1856,  reserved  the  désigna-, 
tion  of  "  the  true  Eûropean  Silurian  "  for  the  rocks  above  this 
horizon.     (Keith  Johnsoo's  Physical  Atlas,  2d  éd.) 

The  Lingula  flags  and  Tremadoc  slates  hâve  been.maide  the 
subject  of  careful  stratigraphical  and  palaeontological  studiçs  by 
the  Geological  Survey,  the  results  of  which  are  set  ,forth  by 
Eamsay  and  Salter  in  the  third  volume  of  the  Memoirs  of  the 
Geological  Survey,  published  in  1866,  and  also,  more  concisely, 
in  the  Anniversary  Address  by  the  former  to  the  Geological 
Society  in  1063.  (Geol.  Jour.  (19),  XVIII.)  The  Lingula 
flags  (with  the  underlying  Menevian,  which  resembles  them 
lithologically)  rest  in  apparent  conformity  upon  the  purf)le 
Harlech  rocks  both  in  Pembrokeshire  and  in  Merionethshire, 
where  the  latter  appear  on  the  great  Merioneth  anticlinal,  long 
since  pointed  out  by  Sedgwick.  The  Lingiila  flags,  (including 
the  Menevian)-  hâve  in  this  région,  according  to  Ramsayj  a 
thickness  of  about  6,000  feet.  Above  thèse,  near  TreraaTroc 
and  Festiniog,  lie  the  Tremadoc  slates,  wHich  are  hère  overlaid, 
in  apparent  conformity,  by  the  Lower  LÏandeilo  beds.  At  a 
■   •  Sinca  <wmjote4  td  tb«  KpHnt  ôf  thst  aSiîrms  in  the  preseni  Tolnme.     — ' 


.^ 


titfJte^^jà^^ja^^SpM.BÉ^^'ifek'K-." 


■  '  ■  w. 


XV.J 


CAMBRIAN  AND  «jttttpta^  . 

Aau  SILURIAÏf  m  EUROPE. 


376 


distance  ofeleven  mUes  tn'tv,  ,^ 

madoc  slates  disappear  and  T  T''°'*^T*'  '^"^«^«r,  the  Tre- 

,         the  Lower  Cambrian  rocks l^  w     r  ^    '  ^"^^  '^"'^'  '^«'•eover 

rest  direct!,  upon  t W  elu^^'n^'  '°'  *^«  ^^"^-1«  bed 

and  in  I,.rand,  mo^over  the  Un     ^^  ''''''''■     ^^  ««'^"and 

and   thé  X.kndeilo„rock;   tLf;"^:  '^°-- -^-%  absent, 

gnts   rega«Ied  as   of  Lower  Cambn        ""'^«"^«^'«ably  upon 

counting  the  Tremadoc  s^a  es  ?.    u"   ^^''     '^^"«'   ^^thout 

■      -knovvn  ont  of  Me^ontt    l'i  J^^^^^        *  ^-1  formation, 

liangor  group  and  Linguk  flalT' h7  .u   "^^   (mdnding  the 

W  feet  of  fossilife  J.  «tll^VhT^-  '''  '^^^^'^^""'  ^^^ 
the  distance  ofa  few  miles      v'  ^'«appear  entirelv  in 

facts.  the  c^nclnsion  ^tu^I'Z  "  ''?.  """^^  «^  ««  ^^e 
between  the  Lingnla  flag^nTiLT^'^  '''''  '""'^  «^-^3 
but  two  ,.eat  «t.tign.ph?crbrit  fn  the  ""''.  "^^'^  «-' 
between  the  Lingula  ûam  and  fT  t  «"«cession  ;  the  one 

the  other  betweet  the  Cr^l'„:r  T"'"^'''''  «^^^«'  -^ 
Uandeilo,  at  the  base  of  Xh^;!^^  ^^  f"^'  «"^  the  Lower 
This  conclusion  i.  confia  d  ^1^   f  ll*'^  ^""^^  -^^«• 

■  r;::r'^---"--xtt:t^^^^^^^ 

near  st.  DaVid's  i„  South  Wales,  and  verv  rJ^t.?"^?.'"'^  *°  "^  «^  *»>»*  âge 
ÇalJournaiyor  Februarv,  1873.  th«  l-«     ,^' "'*'"*  ^^"''rteriv  Geolori- 

"I^P,  n„d  sections.    T^iX^Uave^^^l^f  "^'""T 

«l'roct  y„jH,n  the  Lingnla  C  -A.,  ^n  *  "l"'*' ''' "^  ^'«^  «"««^  and,S,t 
t-o  division,  noticed  by  ^^UnZT^  T"*  "' ««"fonnitybetweenS 
-^foH„,edinseen.ing^,7cXmuS;^^^^^^^  Ïy 

Homfray  considered  équivalent  tT  £  n         ^"'«  '■•^•'«'  ^^^ich  are  by  JI, 
çontn^  in  ab„ndance7he  mmite^ottT/  ^T''^  »'  ^^^h  Wales!  ami 
eds  between  thes«  and  t^Lhi^ja  î**^    f*,?  C°™atiori  of  Canada.    Tl  e 

nnd  a  Denflrocriniu,  varions  bi^binZT',    "^*  •''f^''^«  «f '^«^««MfenW     ' 
t'egenns  A'ù,feandofanewi"rJ!  "."^  •«"'«'"  branchs,  trilobiS?  of' 


s?^i»  L  .âiiiwi. 


376 


CAMpWAN  AND   8ILURIAN   IN   EUROPE, 


[XV. 


The  fauna  of  the  Tremadoc  slates  ia,  according  to  Salter,  al- 
most  entirely  distinct  from  that  of  the  Lingula  flags,  and  not 
less  distinct  from  that  of  the  so-called  Lower  Llandeilo  or 
Arenig  rocks  (the  équivalents  of  the  Skiddaw  slates  of  Cum- 
herland).  Hence,  says  Eamsay,  it  is  évident  "that  in  thèse 
strata  we  hâve  three  perfectly  distinct  zones  of  organic  re- 
uiains,  and  therefore,  in  common  terms,  three  distinct  forma- 
tions." The  palœontological  évidence  is  thus  in  complète 
accordance  with  that  furnished  by  stratigraphy.  We  canuot 
leave  this  topic  without  citing  the  conclusion  of  Bamsay  that 
"each  of  thèse  two  breaks  ijecessarily  implies  a  lost  epoch, 
stratigraphically  quite  unrepresented  in  our  area;  the  life  of 
which  is  only  feebly  represented  in  somé  cases  by  the  fossils 
common  to  the  underlying  and  overlying  fonnation."  In 
connection  with  this  lemark,  which  we  conceive  to  embody 
a  truth  of  wide  application,  it  may  be  said  that  stratigraphical 
breaks  and  discordances  in  a  geological  séries  may,  a  priori, 
be  expected  to  occur  most  frequently  in  régions  where  this 
séries  is  represented  "by  a  large  thickness  of  strata.  The  accu- 
mulation of  such  masses  implies  great  movements  of  subsi- 
dence,  which,  in  their,.^iiafcitre,  are  limited,  and  arè  accompa- 
nied  by  élévations  in  adjacent  ateas,  fiova.  which  may  resuit, 
over  thèse  areas,  either  interruptions  in  the  process  of  sédi- 
mentation, or  the  removal,  by  sub-aerial  or  sub-marine  denuda- 
tion,  of  the  sédiments  already  fonnèdl  The  conditions  of 
succession  and  distribution,  it  may  be  conceived,  would  be 
very  différent  in  a  région  where  the  period  corresponding  to 
this  same  geological  séries  was  marked  by  comparatively  small 
accumulations  of  sédiment  upon  an  ocean-floor  subjected  to  no 
great  movements. 

This  contrast  is  strikingly^  seen  between  the  conformable 
séries  of  less  than  2,000  feet  of  strata,  which  in  Scandinavia 
are  charaèterized  by  the  lirst  three  palaeozoic  faunas  (Cambrian 
and  Silurian),  and  the  repeatedly  broken  and  discordant  suc- 
cession ofmore  than  30,000   feet  of  sédiments,*  which  in 

•  The  Longmynd  rocks  in  Shropshire  are  alone  efitimated  at  20,000  feet  ; 
^bnf îfteir  TOpposëâ équivalents, ffieTTàrrécEi  tocIm  drFem6rofté8hlré,Tiàvë a^ 


i^ïèldkevf^/ 


^V«< 


m 


IV.J  ,  CAâlBlUAN  AND  SILUIUAN  IN  E0IIOJ.E.  g?? 

The  attempt  to  establish  feeological  divisions   nr  K    • 
"Phced  by  a  différent  one,  thek  wm  C^/C    :„7iT'  ^ 

îtwi  r     '"  p"""'"  ''™"'''^'»  "  «"""ions  lo  àr 

W.  hâve  al^dy  „„ti„ed  that  B.m„dV«  "riy  L  M52 
gave  the  „.„e  of  Primordial  Si.„ri.„  t„  t'he  Js^hief  fn 

«T»!  e»««l,  12,000  feM.  md  th.  „^.  a',    T*"  B«'««™«Pln  th.  Dr. 
«pp.r  Uandov.™  or  M.v  Hm  „'2.  '^'  f""?""'  '"""  ">•  ba«  of  th. 
■«  th.t  th.  W»wt^  of  »ÏÏo  .Ï'T'  *''*'"•  '^">  S.«OOto«,000*«,      - 
(Mm.  (M.  Sx  m    piTtr  "J.""  «"""M""»!  l»low  th.  tmth. 


88,000  f«,l.J  "Bgn.d  lo  Ihrao  toclS  by  Hlck,  I,  ,to„j 


378 


CAMBRIAN  AND   SILURIAN   IN   EUROPE, 


[XV. 


Boheinia,  were  marked  by  thô  first  fauna  ;  although  he,  at  the 
same  time,  recognlzed  tins  as  distinct  froin  and  older  than  the 
second  faitna,  discovered  in  the  Llandeilo  rocks,  which  Murchi- 
son  had  declared  to  represent  the  dawn  of  organic  life.     Into 
the  reasons  which  led  liarrande  to  include  the  rocks  of  the 
first,  second,  and  third  faunas  in  one  Silurian  System  (a  view 
which  was  at  once  adopted  by  the  liritish  Geological  Survey 
and  by  Murchison  hiniself),  it  is  not  our  province  to  inquire, 
but  we  désire  to  sBall  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  latter,  by 
his  own  principles,  was  bound  to  reject  such  a  classification. 
In  his  address  before  the  Geolggical  Society  in  1842  (aiready 
quoted  in  the  first  part  ôf  this  paper),  he  declared  that  the 
discussion  as  to  the  value  of  the   term   Cambrian   involved 
the  question  «  whether  there  was  any  type  of  fossils  in  the 
mass  of  the  Cambrian  roeks  différent  from  those  of  the  Lower 
Silurian  séries.     If  the  appeal  to  nature  should  be  answored  in 
the  négative,  theii  it  was  clear  that  the  Lower  Silurian  type 
must  be  considered  the  true  base  of  what  I  had  named  the 
protozoic  rocks  ;  but  if  characteristic  new  forms  were  discov- 
ered, then  would  the  Cambrian  rocks,  whose  place  was  so  well 
establisjied  in  the  descending  séries,  hâve  also  their  own  fauna, 
and  the  palaeozoic  base  would  necessarily  be  removed  to  a 
lower  horizon." 

In  the  event  of  no  distiijct  f|Eiuna  being  found  in  the  Cam- 
brian séries,  it  was  declared  that  "  ther  term  Cambrian  must 
cease  to  be  used  in  zoological  classification,  it  being,  in  that 
sensé,  «ynonymous  with  Lower  Silurian."     (Proc.  Geol.  Soc, 
III.  641,  et  seq.)     That  such  had  been  the  result  of  palœon- 
tological  inquiry  Murchison  then  proceeded  to  show.     Inas- 
much  as  the  only  portion  of  Sedgwick's  Cambrian  which  was 
then  known  to  be  fossiliferous  was  really  above,  and  not  be- 
lowj  the  Llandeilo  rocks,  which  Mnrchison  had  taken  for  the 
base  of  his  Lower  Silurian,  his  reasoning  with  regard  to  the 
Cambrian  nomenclature,  based  on  a  false  datum,  was  itself 
fallacious;   and  it  might  hâve  been  expected  that  when  the 
government    surveyors   had   shown   his  stratigraphicaï   errer, 
Murchison  would  haVe  rendered  justice  ta  th&  nowpn^lftturo  ef 


\ 


\:i^iûÈ*\àûM.  HL^-t/Ht  ,i 


^^Si>     ,V9-. 


Vi  %iW  ito^'i^.^  r*-*j^\x'^  *i.î*<yjt/^ 


■/.,.. 


i 


ÏV]  'CAMBBIAN  AND  SILUBUN  IN  «OROPE.  •    379 

KS  dibvets  '.'iï  ■"":■  "  '-'""'  "  »pp»'  ^  -'«-  " 

l«h»d  the  exlZ  „,  .  "C^f  f"  T'°T"  •""  «*'- 
Cmbria,,  ^H  Uiffel.  f^^  .1  «ttf'Z  T  °™.f  ""■ 
«ries,"  MuKhison  was  bound  bv  h^,^  7°'  *"""'"' 

-„.  .„„eyo«  ,h„„ld  unité  i„câli„„  T^l^^J^^^r 

assuniption   as  «nf  ft^,^!,  ;    ^u  grounds   of  this 

ta  1854  to  18?7  r^  •  '"''°°^'"'  «««™«of  Siluria 

to  .™,  ,^!  '  *"''""'  tteLinguhilags  hâve  beenfound 

fomat,o„,  and  the  overiying  LlandeUo.  ™''"" 

tha:;tT.„^er^;itt::;i  7:^:5;.^^,^  »"• 

in  Sh«>p,hi«,,  lie  beTwelrth^^lT  ™"'r""'™  '"■'«'■' 
Part  II.  page  9  ;  .„d  242,  tli*,    '*'"°-  °"'-  «•"-  "''        - 


<ài^i«<u 


u&è 


380 


CAMBKIAN  AND   8ILURIAN   IN  EUROPE, 


[XV. 


V, 


which  excluded  the  paasage-beda,  and  caused  the  Lower  Silu- 
rian  to  rest  uncoiifomiably  upon  the  Longmynd  rocks.     (Ibtd., 
266  ;  and  Pldte  31,  sections  3  and  6  ;  Plate  32,  section  4.)   But 
in  Siluria  (Ist  éd.  47)  the  two  are  stated  to  be  conformable; 
and  in  the  subséquent  sections  of  this  région,  made  by  Aveline,' 
and  published  by  the  Geological  Survey,  the  évidences  of  this 
want  of  conformity  do  not  appear.     Murchison  at  that  time 
confounded  the  rocks  of  the  Longmynd  with  the  Cambrian 
(Bala)  beds  of  Caermarthenshire  and  Brecon.     (Silurian  Sys- 
tem, 416.)     Hence  it  was  that  he  gave  the  name  of  Cambrian 
to  the  former;  and  this  misti^e,  moreover,  led  him  to  place 
the  Cambrian  of  Caermarthenshire  beneath  the  Llandeilo.     It 
is  clear  that  if  he  claimed  no  well-defined  base  to  the  Llandeilo 
rocks  in  this  latter  (their  typical  région),  it  was  because  he  saw 
them  B^ing  into  the  overlying  Bala  beds.     There  waa,  in  the 
error  by  which  he  placed  below  the  LlandeUo, .  strata  which 
were  really  above  them,  no   ground  whatever  for  afterwards 
including  in  his  Silurian  System,  as  a  downward  continuation 
of  the  Lkndeilo  rocks  (which  are  the  basai  portion  of  the  Bala 
group),  tM,  whole  Festiniog  group  of  Sedgwick;  whose  infra- 
position  to  \he  Bala  had  been  shown  %  the  latter  long  before 
it  was  know'ik  to  be  fossiliferous. 

It  was,  howëver,  claimed  by  Murchison  that  no  line  of  sépa- 
ration cah  be  drawn  between  thèse  two  groups,  The  results  of 
Bamsay  and  of  Salter,  as  set  forth  in  the  address  of  the  fomer 
before  the  Geological  Society  of  1863,  and  more  fuUy  in  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Geological  Survey  (Vol.  IIL  Part  IL)  published 
in  1866,  with  a  préface  by  himself,  as  the  ditector  of  the  Sur- 
vey, are  completely  ignored  by  Murchison.  The  reader  fah}il- 
iar  with  thèse  results,  of  which  we  hâve  given  a  summary, 
finds  with  surprise  that  in  the  last  édition  of  Siluria,  that  of 
1867,  they  are  noticed  in  part,  but  only  to  be  repudiated.  In 
the  five  pages  of  text  which  are  there  given  to  this  great  Mid- 
dle  Cambrian  division,  we  ajB  told  that  the  distinction  between 
the  Lower  Tremadoc  and  the  Lingula  flags  "  is  difficult  to  be 
drawn,"  and  that  the  Upper  Tremadoc.  slate  passes  into  and 
formajhe  lowet  part  of  the  Llandeilo  (under  wbicb   TiamA 


i.isST'^      tWt*- 


i4e^;(ii6ièï'4'iaûaiâWA  îé" 


-V.    fîV 


XVJ 


CAMBRIAN  AND   SILUBIAN   IX  EUROPE 


381 


^,  on  the  contm  raccor;, ''\f  /  '^'^     ^^^  «f  thèse 
probable  unconformL  "    tL  «ttf      T?  "'^^  «'''^^•««'  «"^ 

-^ôn  for  aoubt.  (i..  Georstrin  PrilT  ^'î  "^ 
234.)  The  student  of  Siluria  «onn^-rirl-^T  ^^^^  ^'^^^^ 
where  Murchison'a  pretens  Z  Zl^^"^''  ^"  «^^  «^« 
onJy  calculated  to  m^S  «^««cerned.  ^e  book  is 

-iected,  ao  far  as  fheTn^rZf If!  .f  ^^'"^^"'  ^*  ^^ 
are  concemed,  by  Lyell  ^ml  n  !"  ^''"^^«^  «'-^t^^ 
Hicks  in  England  and  bV  T  -  '  ^'''^'""'  «arkness,  and 
geologists  hâve.  hleTet   alt^Tr^  '"   ^"«^«'^     ^hese 

concession  which.  S^  L^  Ken^i  ?r'  ^'''""''  ' 
ently  fo„nd  its  way  into  „Zt  Mit  ^  th!'  T'  '''^^ 
Perplexities  of  the  Webh  rocks  led  L?  J'*  «nravelled 

Po«e,  for  a  tin,e,  the  nan.e  of  c^Sr  ^T''  *^  P«^ 
^«P.  This  want  of  agr«ement?mr  T  ^''  *^"  ^'» 
nomenclature  of  the  W  1,  ^  «'*'^''8^«*«  ««  *«  the 

confusion  to  the  Wer  V^r""  '''^^'  ^'^"«^^  "«  ^^tle 
Rogers  followed  m^^  ^l-^:\T  '^''  ««^^  I>™n 
the  wholé  pal^ozoic^ries  unT?.  t"*^"  °^  ^'^"'^"«^  to 
sandstone;  ^d  the  aaL'eZVad  l^T  w  ''^  ^^^  «iU 
Manual  oj  the  MoUusca  tL  «f  7^  >  Woodward  in  his 
-^findiatin  th^^ies  ^vin^tt^^^^^^  ''-^ 

mollusca.  on  pages  124,  125  and  127  r^^"^  T^'  '^  *^« 
w  used  in  Sedgmck's  senseri  f  ^-  ""^"^^  °^  Cambrian 
B<™ta  beneath  ^  May  ffi^  ^n3«  ^^  A"  *^^  ^-«"ife-us 
however.  explained  TaTL^wer  Zh  ""^  ^^^  '^^  ^*  ^' 

^  nsea  m  tEë  Lody  of  the  work. 


.  W  !*  J,  J 


?^?'î) 


w- 


382 


CAMBRIAN  AND  SILURIAN   IN   EUROPE. 


[XV. 


li*  - 


The  distribution  of  the  Lower  and  Middle  Cambrian  rocks 
in  Great  Britain  may  now  be  noticed.     ïhe  former,  or  Bangor 
group,  to  which  Murchiaon  and  the  geological  eurvey  restrict 
the  name  of  Cambrian,  and  which  they  sometimes  call  the 
Longmynd,  bottom  or  basement  rocks,  occupy  two  adjacent 
areas  in  Caernarvon  and  Merionetlishire  ;  the  one  near  Bangor, 
including  Llanberris,  to  the  northeast,  and  the  other,  iucluding 
Harlech  and  Barmouth,  to  the  southeast,  of  Snowdon  ;   this 
mountain  lying  in  a  synclinal  between  them,  and  rising  3,5?1 
feet  above  the  sea.     The  great  mass  of  grits  or  sandstones  ap- 
pears  |o  be  at  the  summit  of  the  group,  but  in  the  lower  part 
the  blue  roofing-slates  pf  Llanberris  are  interstratified  in  a  séries 
^  of  green  and  purple  îTÏates,  grits,  and  conglomérâtes.     (Some 
of  the  Welsh  roofing-slates  are,  however,  supposed  to  belong 
lo  tlie  Llandeilo.     Mem,  Geol.  Survey,  III.  Part  II.  pages  64, 
258.)     The  Harlech  rocks  in  this  north western  région  are  con- 
formably-  overlaid  by  the   Menevian,  foUowed   by  the   true 
Lingula  flags,  or  Olftius  beds,  of  the  Middle  Cambrian.    Upon 
thèse  repose  the  Tremadoc  slates. 

The  thîrd  area  of  LoAver  Cambrian  rocks  known  in  Great 

Britain  is  that  akeady  described  at  St.  David's  in  Pembroke- 

shire,  about  one  hundred  miles   to  the  southwest;   and  the 

fourth,  that  of  thè  Longmynd  hills,  about  sixty  miles  to  the 

«outheast  of  Snowdon.     The   rocks  of  the  Longmynd,  like 

.  tliose  of  the  other  Lower  Cambrian  areas  mentioned,  consist 

»X^*'^P*^^y  ^^  8^®^  ^^^  purple  sandstones  with  conglomérâtes, 

'•shales,  and  some  clay-slates.     They  occasionally  hold.flakes  of 

anthracite,  and  small  portions  of  minerai  pitch  exude  from 

tliem  in  some  localities.     The  only  évidence  of  animal  life  yet 

found  in  the  rocks  of  the  Longmynd  are  fumished  by  worm- 

burrows,  the  obscure  romains  of  a  crustacean  {Palœopyge  Ram- 

my),  and  a  fonn  like  Histioderma.     This  latter  organic  relie, 

with  worm-burrows,  and  the  fossils  named  Qldhamia,  is  found 

on  the  coast  of  Ireland  opposite  Caeniarvonshire,  in  the  rocks 

of   Bray   Head  ;  which   resemble   lithologically  the   Harlech 

beds,  and  are  regarded  as  their  équivalents. 

Still  another  area  of  the  older  rocks  is  thatf  of  the  Malvern 


y*\ 


t^ns^i^  siit.' 


î^»^      -^    1    .a-^^»     ^^âU^jJktriiî^.^l&4^1i 


XV.] 


CAMBRIÀN  AND  SILUKIAN  IN  EUBOPE. 


383 


hills,  on  the  western  flanks  nf  «,k;  i, 

Bbales  with  Olfnus,  unTj  a  1^  ^^«0  ^et  T  '"^  °^  '"^'^ 
stones  containing  traces  of  fnnL  ,      «f  greenLsh  sand- 

ObofeUa.     It  is  not  Wnh  K.  ''  "^'^  '^«^'"'ites  and  an 

-^^-by-^u.hison;thTt\reru^^^^  '^^-'^^^  -" 

région,  the  great  mass  of  tL  Ltak  fl  '"^'^''''  ^^  '^ 

Perhap.,  the  whole  séries  ^  uTclZ'  "f'  "^  "^^'^'^' 
Cae.^ri^on  and  Pembroke  undeX  ,h  r  '*'^*^'  ^^"^'^  ^^ 
thèse  sandstones  of  Malvem  S/  .  t^  ^^^'  ^^^ J  '  «i^ce 

-y^taliine  schists,  and t^^rt  ^^^^^^^^^^^  -t  upon 

Thèse  crystalline  schi<,f«  r.f  iJ\  ^  ^  ^^^"  ^uins. 

Philiips  as'the  o^st     l'',S^^^^  ^  described  by 

conjectured  to  be  Un^^^^Y'  '"^  ^^  ^^^-  «oH  a,; 
their  lithdlogical  charartel ^  IT  '^^  d«««iP«ons  of 

-dAnglesea^.,;:SiryrV;u'T  "'  ^^^^^^^ 
identical.     The  crystalline  scL '% Tk      f  ^''^"'  "'^^'^^d  as 

by  Se^gwick.  described  «!  T  ^^"''  ^^^^'  ^°«»"««8  are 

the  Calrian  m:^^4^"„  ^t^^^^''^^  «*-^'  below  the  base  o"' 
SUuria,  adopted  th^l^:  ^^^^^^^  T'^:,'^'  ^^^'-n  of  his 
«elves  were  altered  CaS^  stJL      t'.^' *^* '^«^  *»>«'»- 

-.derlietheLlandeilor'kran^^^^^^^  't'  ^''«^'^^^^^ 

Murchison  to  represent  thjT  Warently  conceived  by 

"Pon  which  he  C,tLted   Th""'  "•^"""^*^-  «^  thèse 
ingénions  arguments  on   the' mtf  '^-^^tÎ'"''"  ''  «"PPorted  by 

regard  then,,  with  SedgS  «nd  km'  ""'T'  ^'^^''^^^  *« 
««e.  and  to  compare  them  with  Z^  P''  ""  °^  P'^Cambrian 
America,  which  occupies T  sTmL  ^"''"^'*"  '^"««  «^  ^^«rth 
-i^ich,  as  seen  in  no^x^  SZaT'  î^^"'  ^^^  -t»^ 
teins,  I  hâve  fonnd  the  rocks  ofi?,  '"^  '^'  ^^"  ^«»«- 
iithological  resemblances  ^^"^  *°  ^«"«^  remarkable 

^o'^'^at^irez::;' t  :r  £  ^^^^-t^-^  ^--^  -i-  in 

>"g  to  Selwyn,  threngLut  ïhe^  ^7^^'''  ^"'  *^'  *««««1- 
0U8  strata  at  the  golden    nl^^^f^^'     ^'^««^  ^««ilifer- 


2^§'i5^,-à.'>,k5î-..-! 


l.-?'^ 


,^: 


'  -^4-: 


--(î 


384 


CAMBRIAN  AND   SILURIAN  IN   EUROPE. 


[XV. 


^ 


more  or  less  cupriferous,  and  themselves  also  contain  gold-bear-^'^ 
iug  quartz  veiiis.     (Mem.  Geol.  Survey,  Part  II.  pages  42,  45  ; 
and  Siluria,  4th  éd.  450,  547.) 

The  Table  on  page  3ê6  gives  a  view  of  the  lower  çalœozoic 
rocks  of  Grèat  Britain  and  North  America,  together  with  the 
varions  nomencktures  and  classifications  referred  to  in  the  pre- 
ceding  pages.     In  the  second  column,  the   horizontal  black 
Unes  indicate  the  positions  of  thff^three  important  palaeontologi- 
cal  and  stratigraphical  breaks  signalized  by  Eamsay  in  the 
British  succession.     (Mem.  Geol.  Survey,  III.  Part  II.  page  2.) 
[Very  recently,  in  1873,  in- the  Proceedings  of  the  Geolo- 
gists'  Association,  Vol.  III.  Part  III.,  Mr.  Hicks  bas  given  a 
similar  tabular  view  of  the  lower  palaeozoic  rocks  of  Great  Brit- 
ain.    The  Bangor  group  (to  which  he  appliea  the  name  of  Long- 
mynd  or  Lower  Cambrian),diflrers  from  that  given  in  the  foUow- 
ing  table  only  in  dividing  the  Menevian  into  an  upper  and  a 
lower  part.     The  Middle  Cambrian  or  Fe'stiniog  group  of  Sedg- 
wick  (which  Hicks  calls  Upper  Cambrian)  présents  also  the 
same  subdivisions  as  are  hère  given.     In  the  next,  or  Upper 
Cambrian  of  Sedgwick  (called  by  Hicks  Lower  SUurian),  are  in- 
cluiled  in  ascending  order  Lower  Arenig  and  Upper  Arenig  or 
Skiddaw,  foUowed  by  Uandeilo,  also  divided  into  two  parts, 
and  by  the  Bala  group,'^hich   he  divides  into  Lower  and 
Upper  Caradoc,  to  which  he  adds,  as  we  hâve  done,  the  Lower 
Llandovery.] 

[In  the  new  Catalogue  of  the  Cambridge  Fossils  is  an  impor- 
tant préface  written  from  Sedgwick's  dictation  late  in  1872, 
and  published  since  his  death.  In  this  he  unités  the  Lower 
Llandovery  with  the  Upper  Cambrian,  and  includes  it,4ogether 
with  the  Caradoc  and  Llandeilo,  under  the  name  of  the  Bala 
group,  which  he  divides  into  Lower,  Middle,  thid  Upper  Bala  ; 
while  the  Arenig  or  Skiddaw  rocks  are  jpined  with  the 
Middle  Cambrian.  Both  the  Arenig  and  the  Tremadoc  rocks, 
in  fact,  présent  a  certain  intermingling  of  organic  forms  belong- 
ing  to  the  first  and  second  faunas  ;  but  according  to  Hicks  tho 
Tremadoc  beds  are  to  be  classed  with  the  first,  and  the  Arenig 
with  the  second.     Thèse  two  groupa  of  rocks  are  in  fiust  the 

• •  -'        ■■■■■■ ■         -       E  ..■-...■    ■■  ■  .  -...         ....         


f:.n 


*  •  ^'^«'"*"'  i.^"  '  t,^-^  '•  't'^ 


XV.J 


CAMBRUN  AND  SILUEUX  m  EUROl^ 


V. 


385 


palaeontological  équivalents  of  tli«  TaT  v 
which  serve  in  jJorth  Amell  1^         '^^^ 

Cambrian  of  Sedgwick  of  fhf        '^«/^^ension  to  the  Upper 

Murcluson,IamconLte;^^^^^^  ^  *^«  Part  of 

n^ny  eminent  geoIoKi«k!t3C«    .      ï"*^"^ ''' ^^«P««û  by  so 
given  to  it  by  ifs  trJteCr  S 'd    "  f  ?  '"^^^"  *^«  --« 

In  the  third  coIuIMBS.  ^.«^^«k-J 
York  and   Canada^XiSl   ^      ""'  """  ^^'''  «^  ^^^  ^e^ 

Published  in  1863,  i^tTGeololTr''''f  '  ^"^"^  ^°d 
posite  to  «.e  Menevian  iwriw  th^^^^  ^^^^^^^^     «P" 
American  localities;    which!^  P     *^ '^'*'"^' «^ '*«  P^ncip^ 
John,  New  Brunswx^ckrinl  S^  ^oh"  "5  ^"-^^"-tts.  St. 
further  considération  of  the  i '"    ■^^''''  ^"^«^^««^ndland.     The 

forthethirdpartofthÏl'lf'^r"'^"'^^^^^^  ^  --«d 
of  Angelin.  it  is  to  be  ZXd  tit  alTf  kT^  classification 
a«  Jie,io  Olenorum,  and  ïll'ï  7^  ^' ^^'^^^'««  Im- 
position of  thèse,  âccording  t^  Linn  ^"!^"^'^^^^-"'«,  the 
the  Conocoryphe  beds  with  Paifrt  •"'  k  ^  "^«'^«^  > 
above,  those  holding  Olenus  Th  p  ^^  ^^''^'  ^"'I  "<>* 
Sweden  has  lately  furn^heTa  hI^^     T    ^«^^-«'^  in 

l'tnnœanum.     (Linnareson    GeoT  M  '   *^'''^'^'   ^^^^on 

'  ^^0^  Magazine,  1869,  VI.  393.) 


17 


h.  .JMV 


,i.l4l|!'!« 


'p  ' 


386 


CAMBEIAN  AND  SÎLUMAN  IN  EUEOPE. 


[XV. 


w 
o 

Q 
îz 
-«) 

PS) 

(1. 
o 

O 
M 

o 

O 

O 
t>5 
O 

s 


11 


s  "I  g 

"Ec  -a 


•lî. 


O 


O 


1  "^     -o  i 


13      bO 


cf 

3  .30 

-.-if 


t 


I 


3    's     §)  ^     8d 

I  -i  -3   s  3 

i        -« 


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a 


a 


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t3 


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8 

-s 

•^ 

H 

H 

C/J 

e 

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&,  -S  I    « 

o  fe  s   « 


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w 


a 


_»a ^k-Si Si ^ o 


d»     oob-<P'0'^     eofr< 


iiéèSÈsÉdàiMS^M,. 


C/Kk 


4i 


^ 


xv.y 


CAMBRUN  AND  8ILUMAN  IN  NORTH  AMERICA.  '  387 


.  V 


m.'  Cambrian  and  Silurian  Eocks,in  Noeth  America.  , 

-^  In  accordance  with  our  plan  we  noW  proceed  to  sketch,  the 

^tory  of  the  lower  palseozoic  ipcka  of  North  America.     While 

European  geologists  were'  canyîng  out4he  researches  which" 

,     hâve  been  desçnbed  in  the  first  and  secènd  parts  of  this  *)W 

t^^Z^7T^'"''  ^'"^  "°*  '^''     The  geologicaXdie: 
of  Eaton  led  the  way  to  a.systematic  survey  of  the  ^te  [{ 
^l^jJoTk  the  résulta  of  which  hâve  bee»  the  basis  of  m^st 
of^the^subsequent  geological  work  in, iastern  North  America  . 
.^   and  which  waa  begun  by  législative  enactment  in  1836      tÛ 
State  was  dividedinto  foui-  districts, , the  work  of  examininl  '' 
and  fin^y  reporting  upôn  which  waa  committed  to  as  mâny   ' 
rX      I"  ^*  or  southea^tefe  district  ^aa  undertaken 
by  Mather  the  second-or  hortheastem  by  Emmops,  the  third 
or  centml  by  Vanuxem,  and  the  fourth  or  western  by  James-  " 
Hall ,  the  palœontol^  of  tlie  whole  being  left  to  Conrad,  and,  " 
the  mineralogy  to  Êeck.     After  varions  annud  reports  the 
nn^  resuJts  of  the  survey  appeared  in  1842.     The  whole  séries 
of  fossihfermis  rocks  known,  from  the  basai  or  Potsdam  sand- 
rtone  to  the  coal-fonuation,  waa  then  described  as  the  New 
X  ork  System. 

At  that  time  the  published  researches  of  British  geologists-   ' 
ftimished  the  means  of  comparison  between  the  organic  remains     " 
found  m  the  rocks  of  New  York,  and  tiiose  then  known  to 
exist  in  the  pateozoic  ^ta  of  Great  Britaih.     Professor  Hall 
was  thus  enabled,  in  his  Geology  of  the  Fourth  District  of  New 
ïork,  to  déclare,  from  the  study  of  its  fossils,  that  the  New 
royk  System  included  the  Devoniàn  of  Phillips,  the  SiluriàS 
of  Murchison,  and  the  Cambrian  of  Sedgwick  :  meaning  by 
the  ktter  the  Upper  Cambrian,  or  Bala  group,  which  done 
was  then  known  to  be  fossiliferous.     From  the  évidence  theh 
before  him,  he  coÇcluded  that  the  Upper  Cambrian  was  repre- 
sented  m  the  New  York  system  by  the  whole  of  the  rocks  from 
the  base  of  the  Utioa  slate  downward,  with  th«  pivbable  er- 


-cepùon  of  the  Potsdam  eandstoie;  whUe  he  conceived,  partly 


•^       ,! 


\ 


<^*i  :  ■« 


â;-? 


^fJ^^i^')b&#^V"-^<^p«&'^^^*^-i^'>ÀW-'  4^"-^  i^i^-iù'» A^'.^' 


*-^. 


388      CAMBKIAN,  AND   SILUEIAN  IN*NORTH  AMERICA.       [XV. 

0 

on  mtological  gr(|and8,  that  the  Utica  and  Hudson-Eiver 
groupa  represented  the  Llandeilo  .and  Caradoc,  or  the  Lower 
\  SUurian  of  Murchison.  (Zoc.  ««.,  pages  20,  29,  31.)  Th^-prigin 
pf  the  Cambrianaud  Silurian  controversy,  and  the  errora  by 
.which  the  Llandeilo  and  a  part  of  tfie  Caradôc  Jiad  by  Murchi- 
4on  been  classed  as  a  ôeries  distinct  from  the  l^ajgroup,  were 
not  then  known  ;  but  in  a  note  to  this  report  (page  20)  Hall 
informs  us  of  the  déclaration  of  Murchison,  already  quoted 
from  his  address  of  1842,  that  the  Cambri^,  so  far  as  then 
known,  could  not,  on  palaeontological  grounds,  be  distinguished 
from  his  Lower  Silurian. 

Emmons  meanwhile  had  examined  in  easterg:  New  York 
and  western  New  England  a  séries  bf  fossiliferous  rocks  which, 
on  lithological  and   stratigraphical  grounds,  he  regarded  as 
older  than  any  in  the  New  York  system  ;  a  view  which  had 
been  previously  maintained  by  Eaton.     Holding,  with  HaU, 
that  the  lower  members  of  the  New  York  system  were  the 
equivalentfS  of  the  Upper  Cambrian  of  Sedgwfck,  he  looked 
upon  the  fossiliferous  rocks  which  he  placed  beneath  them  as 
the  représentatives  of  the  Lower  Cambrian.     By  this  name,  as 
we  hâve  seen,  Sedgwick,  in  1838,  designated  ail  those  un- 
crystâlline  rocks  of  North  Wales  whic^  he  subsequently  divided 
into  Lower  and  Middle  Cambrian,  an^  which  lie  beneath  the 
base  of  the  Bala  group.     When  Murchison,  in  1842,  in  his  so 
often  quoted  déclaration,  asserted  that  "  t^e  term  Cambrian  must 
cease  to  be  used  in  a  zoiilogical  classification,  it  being  in  that 
sense.synonymous  with  Lower  Silurian,"  hé  was  speaking  only 
on  palaeontological  grounds,  and,  disregarding  the  great  Lower 
and  Middle  Cambrian  divisions  of  Sedgwick,  had  référence  only 
to  the  Upper  Cambrian.     This,  however,  wa^  overiooked  by 
Emmons,  who,  feeling  satisfied  that  the  sediment^ry  rocks  which 
he  had  examined  in  eastern  New  York  were  distinct  from  those 
which  he,  with  HaU,  regarded  as  corresponding  to  the  Bala 
group  or  Upper  Cambrian  (the  Lowe^  Silurian  of  Murchison), 
and  probably  équivalent  to  the  inferior  portions  of  Sedgwick's 
Cambrian  ;  and,  supposing  that  the  latter  term  was  îienceforth 

to  be  etfeced  from  gwlogy  (aa  indeed  was  attompte^  shertiy^ 

\ 


t-îïi'y* 


^^  i\% 


XV.]  OAMBRUN  AND  SILURIAN  IN  NOBTH  AMERICA.  389 
after/in  the-copy  of  Sedgwick's  map  published  in  1844  by  the 
Geologxcal  Society),  devised  for  thèse  r^cks  the  name  of    L 

District  of  New  York  roaee  162^      ^TfSl   V*  !  ^°'^*'«^" 

of  New  York  ^I    Iq/  T  S'   ,        ^'*^''  ^''  Agriculture 
ui  x-^ew  xorjc  (1.   49),  the  hfth  chapter  of  which    "On  ii.^ 

Tacomc  System  »  was  aiso  published  sUtelyt^^^^^ 
he  pi^sence  of  distinctive   organic  ^Liàs^x  the  roikl  of 
this  senes  was  flrst  announced        ,  * 

■  ««^""T^."^  *'  Professor  Hall,  after  the  completion  df  the 
Burvey,  had  been  conunitted  the  task  of  studying  and  descri^ 
xng  the  org.,,0  remains  of  the  State,  and  in  184rapZed 

.  tt.e  first  volume  of  Jus  great  work  on  the  Palœontology  o^S 
York.  Sxnce  1842  he  had- been  enabled  to  e^amfne  mo^ 
fully  the  orgamc  remains  of  the  Wer  r^cks  of  the  New  ^ork 
syjem,  and>  compare  them'  with  those  of  the  Old  WorW 

S  he  1  w w"  *'  '""^  ^^^""^«  J-*  --^--d  (pige' 

^)  he  announced  the  important  conclusion  that  the  New^York 

llT.^:.  "-t"^'  ^"  ^^^^'  ^^"-  *^-  the  Upper  Cam    '" 
bmn  of  Sedgwick.     According  to  Hall,  the  oi^nic  ïormsTf 
^be  Cdcxferous  and  Chazy  formations  had  .ot  ^t  beenTunl 

eTi  the  PnTr  ^V^'  Trenton  g«,up.     He  however 
exoepted    he  Potsdam  sandstone.  which  already,  in  1842  he 
had  concexved  to  be  below  the  Upper  Cambrian  ;f  S  dg4k 
and  nowregarded  as  the  pn^bable  équivalent  of  the  S 

eTe  l"th  ?b  T  *?\«^«^Phieal  gn^unds,  the  exista 
ence,  beneath  the  base  of  the  New  York  System,  of  a  lower 
and  unconformable  séries  of  rocks,  in  whicfi,  in  844  heT 
nounced  the  discovery  of  a  distinctive  faunl.     HaU    on  Z 

knTtnritmtckT  '''''  '^""^  ^'^^  ''-''^'^^ 


1-,^  ^   , ^  j:  -  ^  -:^j^"^i^  it»  tnis  pjace  tue  détails  of  tha 


&.«*  „k 


^^; 


-is:^' 


N 


'=-    / 


390      CAMBRIAN   AND  SILURIAN   IN   NORTH  AMERICA.      [XV. 


cently  dîscussed  in  my  address  before  the  American  Associa-  -. 
tion  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in  August,  1871.  {Ante, 
page  251.)  It  is,  however,  to  be  remarked  that  Hall,  in  com- 
moh  With  1^11  other  American  gqologists,  fdSowed  Henry  D. 
Eogers  in  opppsing  the  viewa  of  Emmons,  whoae  Taconic 
System  was  supposed  to  represent  either  the  whole  oip  a  part 
of  the  Champlaîn  division  of  the  New  York  system  ;  which 
division  included,  as  is  well  known,  ail  of  the  fossiliferous 
rocks  up  to  the  base  of  the  Oneida  cpnglomeraté  (and  also  this 
latter,  according  to  Emmons)  ;  thus  comprehending  both  the 
first  and  the  second  palœozoicifaunas;  as  shown  in  the  pre- 
ceding  table  on  page  386. 

Emmons,  misled  by  stratigraphical  and  lithological  considér- 
ations, complicated  the  question  in  a  sirgular  manner,  which 
scarcely  finds  a  parallel  except  in  the  history  of'  Murchison's 
Silurian  sections.  Completely  inverting,  as  I  hâve  elsewhere 
shown,  the  order  of  succession  in  his  Taconic  system,  estimated 
by  him  at  30,000  feet,  he  placed  near  the  base  of  the  lower 
division  of  the  system  the  Stockbridge  or  Eolian  limestone,  in- 
cluding  the  white  marbles  of  Vermont  ;  which,  by  their  prganic 
remains,  bave  dnce  been  by  Billings  found  to  belong.to  the 
Levis  formation.  A  large  portion  of  the  related  rocks  in 
western  Vermont  and  elsewhere,  which  afford  a  fauna  now 
^nown  to  be  far  more  ancient  than  that  of  the  Lower  Taconic 
just  referred  to,  and  as  low  if  not  lower  than  anything  in  the 
New  York  system,  were,  by  Emtnons,  then  placed  partly  near 
the  summit  of  the  TJpper  Taconic,  and  partly,  not  only  above 
the  whole  Taconic  system,  but  above  the  Champlain  division 
of  the  New  York  system.  Thus  we  find,  in  1842,  in  his  Re- 
port on  the  Geology  of  the  Northern  District  of  New  York 
where  Emmons  defined  his  views  on  the  Taconic  system), 
that  he  placed  above  this  latter  horizon  botji  the  green  sand- 
stone  of  Sillery  near  Quebec^d  the  Eed  sand-rock  of  western 
Vermont  (which  he  then  regarded  as  the  représentatives  of 
the  Oneida'  and  the  Médina  kindstones),  and  described  the 
latter  as  made  up  from  the  ruins  of  Taconic  rocks  (pages  124, 
282).     In  1844- 1846,  in  his  Report  onjthe  Agriculture  of 


■-,« 


•kià.'  fe    ""t*.  'È'^   i.      I  Ail 


%.l.^*-^  ^.     ^     .^ 


^j^    1>  Î^i>.»?iva4â{3£^ 


^  ..  .^,^ 


«■•: 


XV.] 


CAMBBIAN  AND  SttURIAN  IN  NORTH  AMERICA. 


391 


in  hh  American  àS^I  mf  i,  '""j.  "''  "  '««^' 

Mobile,  which  nTta  m7    f '^'  '''°""^'  '^'^  "t  • 
'      this  ffenus  waa  <'af  tKof  f-     v      ?^    timethat  inaamùch  as 

be  dmwn  ircm  thèse  foiTu^^T       ,      T"'"»'»""  .«""id 

l«^  of  the  «icond  feuT^nlti  ^'.""Wong  to  the 
(2).  XXXllm)  '""™"'  °'  "**  1'°'"*^"    (Ibid. 

-ck.  w^,e,trLt™^,^ri'°  ""«''*  "■-  ^  «and:  ; 

-a..ck,arbe^^jrT^vrrr^r 

a  few  yeare  befopfi  h.^  ««-«^  j  system.     Ihese  slates, 

-ain4  in  tl^'^.tltfe^oTHSI'n 

more,  were  in  1859  descnbed  bv^-'        ..       ^''^  ^^^  ^' 

of  the  Régents  of  ttru^ve^y^  Kew  VT'  ^°^ 

*ûefia^wii8titQte  a  distinct  ffAmia  A.,  ^irrlf ,  "«uvwy  louati 


-*»^--'™-^«-«'  ^ -f  »,«J-^<^-^e^ 


;^ 


^*^i-*-^i*>.«à,étm 


*/-■ 


392      CAMBBIAN   AND  81LURUN  IN   NORTH   AMERICA.      [XV, 

nam«  of  Barrandia,  but  finding  this  name  preoccupied,  suggebted 
in  1861,  in  the  fourteenth  Régents'  Report,  that  of  Olenellus, 
whicli  waa  subsequently  adopted  by  Billings  in  1Ç65.  (Palœo- 
zoic  Fossila,.  pages  365,  419.)'  In  1860,  Emmons,  in  lus  Manual 
of  Geology,  described  the  same  species,  but  plàced  them  in  the 
genus  Paradoxides,  as  P.  Thomptoni  and  P.  Vermontana.  Hall 
had  already,'  in  1847,  in  the  first  volume  of  his  Palœontology 
of  New  York,  referred  to  Oleiiua  the  Elliptocephaliis  aaaphoides 
of  Emmons,  and  also  a  fragment  of  another  trilobite  frora 
Saratoga  Lake  ;  both  of  which  were  described  as  belonging  to 
the  Hudson-River  group  of  thd  New  York  system,  or  to  a  still 
'higher  horizon.  The  reasons  for  this  will  appear  in  the  aequel. 
The  Mliptocephalus,  with  another  lailobite  named  by  Emmons 
Atops  (refarred  by  Hall  to  Ccdymene,  and  subsequently  by  BU- 
lings  to  Conocoryphe),  occure  at  Greenwich,  New  YorL  Thèse 
were  by  Emmons,  in  his  essay  on  the  Taconic  system  (in  1844), 
described  as  characteristic  of  that  system  of  rocks. 

A  copy  of  the  Efegents'  Report;  for  1859  having  been  sent  by 
Billings  to  Barrande,  this  eminent  palseontologist,  in  a  letter 
addressed  to  Proféssor  Bronn  of  Heidelberg,  July  16,  1860 
(American  Journal  of  Science  (2),  XXXI.  212),  called  attention 
to  the  trilobites  therein  figured,  and  declared  that  no  palaîon- 
tologist  familial  with  the  trilobites  of  Scandinavia  would  •'  hâve 
hesitated  to  class  them  among  the  species  of  the  primordiai, 
fauna,  and  to  place  the  schists  enclosing  them  in  one  of  the 

'formations  containing  this  fauna.  Such  is  my  profound  convic- 
tion,"" etc.  The  letter  containing  this  statement  had  already 
appeared  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science  for  March,  1861, 
but  Mr.  Billings  in  his  note  just  referred  to,  on  the  fossils  of 
Highgate,  in  the  same  Journal  for  September  of  that  year, 
makes  no  allusion  to  it.  In  March,  1862,  however,  he  re- 
tums  to  the  subject  of  the  sand-rock,  in  a  more  detailed  commu- 
nication (Ibid.  (2),  XXXIII.  100),  and  after  correcting  some 
omissions  i^  his  former  note,  allude«  in  the  following  language 
to  Mr.  Barrande,  and  to  the  expressed  opinion  of  thedatter, 
just  quoted,  with  regard  to  the  fossils  in  question  and  the 

==ïockg  containing  th«n  :  "  I  mostdsostate  that  Barrande  ^rst 


f\ 


*r 


.-aali; 


XV.]       CAMBBUlf  AND   SILUMAN  IN  NOBTH  AMERICA.      393 

detemined  tU  âge  of  the  dates  in  Georgia,  Vermont,  holding 
P.  2hornp»om  and  />.  Va^tanay     He  adds.  "at  tho  time  I 
y^i.  the  note  on  the  Highgate  fossils  it  was  not  knownTha 
Lr  ^^-  T  ^«"^«™*Wy  inter^tratified  with  the  Red  sand- 
rock.     This  discovery  was  made  afterwaids  by  the  Eev    T  R 
Perry  and  Dr.  G.  M.  Hall  of  Swanton  "         ^  ^• 

VI.  318)  for  having  wntten  in  1871  (a,^/.,  page  258)  witi 
^  to  the  Georgia  trilobites  ii,.t  dUribeVaa  oSjÏt 
^fesaor  Hall  that  Ban^nde  "called  attention  toWpt^ 
mo«l.al  character  and  thus  led  ta  a  knowledge  of  their/me 

Pf  Barrande  and  the  explicit  déclaration  of  Mr.  Billings  iust 
quotea^contomed  the  whole  truth  of  the  matter.     nTâtteT 

in  May  1862  (Ibid.  (2),  XXXIII.  421),  in  whick  while  m 
serting  that  Emmona  had  alx^dy  assigi'ed  te  thèse  n,  ks  a 
^ ter  âge  than  the  New  York  syste^he  xnentioS  "bat  in 

fessor  Hall  on  the  Georgia  fossils,  he  alluded  to  theii  primoixlial 
character,  and  suggested  that  they  might  belong  ^  what  Mr 
Barrande  bas  caUed  "a  colony"  in  the  rocks  of  the  second 

îî    t_  7^""  ''  *^'°  ^^^^  ^  *  °°*^  ^y  Si^  William  Logan  in 
the  Préface  to  the  Geology  of  Canada  (page  viii)?    As  the    • 
genus  Olenus,  to  which  Professor  Hall  had  referred  the  fossils 
in  question,  was  at  that  time  (1860)  well  known  to  belong 
both  m  Great  Britain  and  in  Scandinavia,  to  the  primordid 
launa,  Mr.  Barrande  does  not  seem  to  bave  thought  it  neces- 

TU''  i.\«,  «0"««P«ndence  to  refer  to  the  very  obvions  rpmark 
01  Mr.  BillingS. 

'  ,  ^'-  ^i!""^  ^'^^«^  «'^o^ed  in  his  paper  in  Marcb,  1862 
that  fossils  identical  with  those  of  the  Georgia  slates  hM  been 
tound  by  bim  m  spécimens  coUected  by  Mr.  Eiçhardson  of  the 
Seological  snrvey  of  Canada  in  the  summer  of  1861,  on  tho 

cZ^^^\r       ^        """^  0^^«<am  were  found  with 


orîîpft«^e»oo^A«feï)nin-8trata  wHcF^WOT^ 


5ï»ïilv..'ià]s^.!' 


k-i 


394     OAMBRIAN  A^D  81LUBIAN  IN  NORTH  AMERICA.      [XV. 


referred  to  the  Potsdam  group.  (See,  for  the  further  history 
of  thèse  fossils  the  Geology  of  Canada,  pages  866,  955,  and 
FaL  Fossils  of  Canada,  pages  11,  419.)  n 

The  interstratiiication  of  the  dark-colored  fossiliferous  shalea 
holding  OteneUii»  with  the  Red  sand-rock  of  Vonnont,  an- 
nounced  by  Mr.  Billings,  was  further  contirmed  by  Sir  William 
Logaq  in  his  account  of  the  section  at  Swanton,  Vermont. 
(Geology  of  Canada,  281.)  They  were  there  declared  to  occur 
about  600  feet  from  the  base  of  a  séries  of  2,200  feet  of  strata, 
consisting  cliiefly  of  red  sandy  dolomites  (the  so-called  sand- 
rock)  containing  Conocephalv*  throughout,  while  the  shaly  beds 
held,  in  addition,  the  two  species  of  Paradoxide»  {OleneUtis) 
and  some  brachiopods.  Thèse  beds,  like  those  of  LAbrador, 
were  referred  by  Logan  and  by  Billings  to  the  Potsdam  group. 
The  conclusions  hère  announced  were  of  great  importance  for 
the  history  of  the  Taconic  controversy.  The  trilobites  of  pri- 
mordial type,  from  Georgia,  Vermont,  which  by  Emmons  were 
placed  in  the  Taconic  System,  lying  unconformably  beneath  a 
séries  of  rocks  belonging  to  the  lower  part  of  the  New  York 
System,  were  now  declared  to  belong  to  the  Red  sand-rock 
group,  a  member  of  this  overlying  system.  Much  bas  been 
said  of  thèse  fossils;  as  if  they  fumished  in  some  way  a  vindi- 
cation  of  the  views  of  Emmons,  and  of  the  Taconic  System  ;  a 
conclusion  which  can  only  be  deduced  from  a  misconception 
of  the  facts  in  the  case.  Emmons  had,  previous  to  1860, 
on  lithological  and  stratigraphical  évidence  alone,  called  the 
GcOTgia  slates  Taconic,  and  placed  them  unconformably  be- 
neath the  Red  sand-rock.  If  now  both  he  and  Billings  were 
right  in  referring  the  Red  sand-rock  to  the  Calciferous  and 
Potsdam  formations,  and  if  the  stratigraphical  déterminations 
of  Messrs.  Perry  and  G.  M.  Hall,  confirmed  by  those  of  Logan, 
were  correct,  namely,  that  the  trilobites  in  question  occur  not 
in  a  System  of  strata  lying  unconformably  beneath  the  Red 
sand-rock,  but  in  beds  intercalated  with  the  sand-rock  itself, 
it  is  clear  that  thèse  trilobites. must  belong  not  to  the  Taconic, 
but  to  the  New  York,  system.  We  shall  retum  to  the  ques- 
tion  of  the  âge  of  thèse  rockg. 


l.i.::'-: 


f 

'ij,.-.-.,,  V 


'.Àl'fhÂ 


\  •"''■>  ,  ' 


r^i 


X^.] 


CAIORIAN  AND  SILUfilAIT  IN  NOETH  AMEBICA. 


396 


We  havé  seen  thafc  Profeaaor  James  HaU  in  ^f^±7       a       • 


the  ôumniit 

jinown  that 

iference,  in 

rrors  wljich 

,  ^nger  on  the 

In  his  Anfceok- 


^  the  HudBOn-Eiver  group.  ^r,  in  other 

of  the  second  palœozoic  feuna,  while  it  ' 
'  J^7  ««  characteristic  of  the  fiwt  feuni 

1»47,  Professor  Hall  waa  justified  by  thœ 

we  hâve  already  pointed  out  ih  the  woV? 

geology  of  Scandinavia.    (Ant<  pace  36«f  r    r    u-     . 

ningar.  in  1828,  while  the  col^^^  f!5'^    ^"  ^"^  ^"^J^" 

of  thèse  WM  there  above  (h!  Jif  '       .  ^   '^"'"'  "^  '«"' 
-the  „n,™t  of  th^    Xdt„:r  'Ï'"^'T?!°»«'  ■«•  •» 

both  h,  cir^ii:tn.irf^7'  --f  •«"• 

««Phioal  grcod^  refe^TS  tteZ  It^rfïr"  ='""'- 
«tooe;  a  View  -hioli    »  „.  i  *""  ■''»''™  ™»1- 

P«.r  „nta  s  '  '^°''"'°  ^"^  -"d  ■""  «P^ 

ProfewOTjame.  HaU  had  therefore  ai 


«^*  uiuoeg  uaii  ùad  therefore  at  thi«  tima  fK-   ♦ 


^. 


S  ^S^-^,  ^    «C^A^ 


396      CAMBRIAN  AND   SILURIAN   IN  NORTH  AMERICA.       {XV. 


mit  of  the  second  fauna.  Before  we  can  understand  his  reasons 
for  maintaining  a  similar  view  in  1859,  we  must  notice  the 
history  of  geological  «ivestigation  in  eastem  Canada.  So  early 
as  1827,  Dr.  Bigsby,  to  whom  North  American  geology  owea 
80  much,  had  given  us  (Proc.  Geol.  Soc,  I.  37)  a  careful  de- 
scription of  the  geology  of  Québec  and  its  vicinity.  He  there 
found  reating  directly  npon  the  ancient  gneiss  a  neariy  hori- 
zontal dark-colored  conchiferous  limestone,  having  sometimes 
at  its  base  a  calcareous  conglomerate,  and  well  displayed  on 
the  north  shore  of  the  St.  Lawrence  at  Montmorenci  and  Beau- 
port;.  He  distinguished,  more'over,  a  third  group  of  rocks, 
descri"bed  by  him  as  a  "  slaty  séries  composed  of  shale  and 
graywacke,  occasionally  pasging  into  a  brown  limestone,  and 
altemating  with  a  calcareous  conglomerate  in  beds,  some  of 
them  charged  with  fossils  ....  derived  from  the  conchifer- 
ous limestone."  (This  fossihferous  conglomerate  contained 
alflo  fragments  of  clay-slate.)  From  ail  thèse  circumstances 
Bigsby  concluded  that  the  flat  conchiferous  limestones  were 
older  than  the  highly  inclined  graywacke  séries  ;  which  latter 
was  described  as  forming  the  ridge  on  which  Québec  stands,  the 
north  shore  to  Cape  Rouge,  the  island  of  Orléans,  and  the 
southem  or  Pojnt-Levis  shore  of  the  St.  Lawrence;  where, 
besides  trilobites  and  the  fossils  in  the  conglomérâtes,  he  no- 
ticed  what  he  called  vegetable  impressions,  supposed  to  be  '.-. 
fucoids.  Thèse  wc)re  the  graptolijtos  which,  neariy  thirty  years 
later,  were  studied,  described,  and  figured  for  the  geological  ' 
surveyof  Canada  by  Professor  James  Hall,  who  bas  shown 
that  two  of  the  species  from  this  locality  were  described  and 
figured  undor  the  nAie  of  fucoids  by  Ad.  Brongniart,  in  1828. 
(GeoL  Sur.  Canada,  Décade  IL  page  60.)  Bigsby,  in  1827, 
conceived  that  the  ^limestones  of  the  north  shore  might  belong 
to  the  carboniferoué  period,  and  hoted  the  existence  of  what 
were  called  small  seams  of .  coal  in  the  graywacke  séries  of  the 
south  shore.  This  substaittce  which  I  hâve  since  described  v> 
however,  entiwly  distinct  from  oqi»l,  and  occurs  in  fissures,  some- 
times in  the  interstices  of  crystalline  quartz.  It  is  an  insolu- 
Mq  hy4rocarboDaceoua  body,  brilliant,  very  fragUe,  fflviim  a.,. 


»'» 


M 


■1 


,iS#.^.  «.. 


,«»&:. ,.-:ïS.S(AL*k 


XV.]       CAMBRIAN  AND   SILURIAN  IN  NORTH  AMERICA.      397 
f  once'Sd  hf  ^^'\-P^^-^^y  from  the  alteration  of 

In  1842  the  geological  sm-vey  of  Canada  was  begun  by  Sir 

,jent  dated  zu  that  year  but  printed  in  1845.  says  (paleigT- 
Of  the  relative  âge  of  the  contorted  ix)ck8  of  plt  Levk 
opposite  Québec,  I  hâve  not  any  good  évidence,  though  I  a^ 
nchned  to  the  opinion  that  they  corne  out  from  below  the  C 
Wones  of  the  St.  Lawrence."     He  however  subse^uenÏy 
adds,  ma  foot-note,  "The  accumulation  of  évidence  p^nts  Ï 
the  conclusion  that  the  Point  Levia  rocks  are  superior  to  the 
St.  Lawrence  limestones."    In   1845,  Captain,  now  Admimî 
Bayfield  mamtained  the  same  view,  fortifying  himself The 
^rly  observations  of  Bigsby,  and  expressi 'g  t\e  opiln  t  ' 
nel   th '"^  ^^''  f  Montmorenci  and  Beauport  passed  be 
neath   the  gmywacke   séries.     Thèse  limestones.  from   their 
fossils.  were   declared  to  be  low  down^n  the  SiluriTn   a^d 
u  entical  with  those  which  had  been  observed   at   intervTls 
along  the  north  shore  of  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Montrea  rGeo 
Journal    L  455),  the  fossiliferous  limestones   of  wWch  tt 

sTm  suT;  rd  byXSTotidT  -f  ^^r  '  ^^"^^  ^- 

j-f  Kx  uy  xwyneia  to  Jiold  in  its  conglomérâtes  fossils 
from  thèse  Imiestones,  was  thei^fore  naturally  regard  da^ 
belonging  to  the  stiU  higher  members  of  that  system  fai  d  Z 
we  hâve  seen.  the  green  sandstone  near  Québec,  a  memb  r  o7 
that  séries,  had  aiready.  in  1842,  been  regardé»  by  Emmon^  al 
the  représentative  of  the  Oneida  or  Shawingunk  CTome^t^ 
at  the  summit  of  the  Hudson  Rivet  group  of  New  Yorr  ' 
It  18  to  be  noticed  that  immediately  to  the  northeast  of 
Québec,  rocks  undoubtedly  of  the  aga  of  the  Utica  and  Hu/: 

rttTffTTrf"'  ««"f'^"°'^%  theTi^nton  limestone, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence;  while  a  few  miles  S 
the  Bouthwe,^,  stmte  of  the  same  âge,  and  occupying  a  s  milar 
stratigiaphical  position,  appear  on  both  sides  of  the  St.  Law- 

ronce,  and  nm  traced  nonfiminncUr  e,^i...   i.i  -• .  -   .. 

^«Hreu  teatmuously  inim  Hma  vicinity  to  thé 


,>,: 


398      CAMBRIAN  ANd/sILURIAN  IN   NORTH  AMERICA.      [XV. 

valIey  of  Lake  Champlain.  Thèse,  moreover,  offer  such  litho- 
logical  Tesemblances  Ito  what  was  called  the  graywacke  séries  of 
Québec  and  Point  I^vis  (which  extends  thence  some  himdieds 
of  miles  nortljeastward  along  the  right  bank  of  the  St  Law- 
rence), that  the  two  séries  were  readily  confounded,  and  the 
whole  of  the  belt  of  rocks  along  the  southeast  side  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  from  the  valley  of  Lake  Champlain  to  Gaspé, 
was  naturally  regarded  as  younger  than  the  limestoues  of  the 
Trenton  group.  It  was  in  1847  that  Sir  William  Ldgan  com^ 
menced  his  examination  of  the  rocks  of  this  région,  and  in  his 
Report  for  the  next  year  (1848,  page  58)  we  find  him  speaking 
of  the  continuons  outcrop  "  of  recognized  rocks  of  the  Hudson 
Eiver  group  £rom  Lake  Champlain  along  the  south  bank  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  to  Cape  Rosier."  In  his  Report  for  1850,  thèse 
rocks  were  further  notieed  as  extending  from  Pbint  Levis 
Southwest  to  the  Richelieu,  and  northeast  to  Gaspé  (pages  19, 
32).  They  were  described  as  consisting,  in  aâcending  séquence 
from  the  Trenton  limestone  and  the  Utica  slate,  of  clay-slates  and 
limestones,  with  graptolites  and  other  fossils,  foUowed  by  con- 
glomerate-beds  supposed  to,  contain  Trenton  fossils,  red  and 
green  shales  and  green  sandstones  ;  the  détails  of  the  section 
being  derived  from  the  neighborhood  of  Québec  and  Point 
Levis,  and  from  the  rocks  first  described  by  Bigsby.  As  fu> 
ther  évidence  with  regard  to  the  8up{)osed  horizon  of  thèse 
rocks,  to  whioh  he  subsequently  (in  1860)  gave  the  name  of 
the  Québec  group,  we  may  cite  a  lotter  of  Sir  William  Logan, 
dated  Novembe^  1861  (Amer.  Jour.  Sci.  (2),  XXXIII.  106), 
in  which  he  says  :  "  In  1848  and  1849,  founding  myself  upon 
the  apparent  superposition  in  eastem  Canada  of  what  we  now 
call  the  Québec  group,  I  enunciated  the  opinion  that  the  whole 
tteries  belonged  to  tl^  Hudson  River  group  and  its  immediately 
succeeding  formation;  a  Leptœna  vejy  like  L.  sericea,-  and^an 
Orthis  very  like  0.  testudinaria,  and  taken  by  me  to  be  thèse 
spëcies,  being  theu  the  oiUy  fossils  found  in  the  Canadian  rocks 
in  question.  This  view  supported  Professer  Hall  in  placing, 
as  he  had  already  done,  the  Olenus  rocks  of  New  York  in  the 
Hudson  River  group,  in  accordance  with  Hiainjuer's  liât  of 


'^^^^^f^'TF"' 


XV.]      CAMBEIAN  AND  SILUEIAN  IN  NORTH  AMERICA.      399 

Swedish  rocks  as  given  iû  the  Lethœa  Suecica  in  1837,  and  Hbt 
as  he  had  previously  given  it."     {Ante,^ages  366  and  395  ) 

Ihe  concurrent  évidence  deduced  from  stratigraphy,  from 
geographacal  distribution,  from  lithologicS  and  from  paleonto- 
logical  characters,  thus  led  Logan,  from  the  first,  to  adopt  the 
view#  alr^dy  expressed   by  'Bigsby,  Emmons,  and  Bayfiflid 
and  to  B^sign  the  whole  of  the  pal^ozoic  rocks  oï,  the  southeast 
.  shore  of  the  St.  Lawrence  beW  Montréal  to  a  position  in  the 
JNew  York  system  above  the  Trentoj^  ijmestone.     While  thus 
as  he  says,  founding  his  opinion  on  the  stratigraphical  évidence 
obtained  m  eaatem  Canada.  Logan  was  also  influenced  by  the 
considération  that  the  rocks  in  question%ere  continuons  with 
thoôe  in  western  Vermont.     Part  of  ,the  rorts  of  this^  région 
had,  as  we  hâve  seen;  originally  been  placed  by  Emmons  at 
^  this  honzon,  whde  the  others,  referred  by  him  to  his  Taconic 
System,  were  maintained  by  Henry  D.  Rogera  to  belong  to  the 
Hudson  River  group  ;  a  view  which  was  adopted  by  Mather 
and  byHaU,and  strongly  defended  by  Adams,  at  that  time 

iS     ."",!.?' "^''^'^  '""'"y  °^  ^«™«"*'  ^tl^  ^tich,  in 
ie4b  and  1847,  the  présent  writer  was  connectée 

As  regards  the  subséquent  paleontological  discoveries  in 
thèse  rocks  in  Canada,  it  is  to  be  said  that  the  graptoKtes 
first  noticed   by  Bigsby  in    1827  were  rediscovered  by'the 
GeoIogicalArveyat  Point  Levis  in  1854,  and  having  been 
placed  m  tflf  hands  of  Professor  James  Jîall  (wL  in  that  yea* 
first  saw  the  rocks  in  question),  were  partially  descrih^d  by  him 
ma  communication  to  Sir  William  Logan,  dated  April,  1855 
and  subsequently  at  length  in  1858.    (Report  Geol.  Survey  fÂ 
1857,  page  109,  and  Décade  IL)     They  were  new  forma,  it  is 
true,  but  the  horizon  of  the  graptolites,  both  in  New  York  and 
in  Sweden,  was  the  same  as  that  already  assigned  by  Logan  to 
the  Point  Levis  rocks.     Thus  thèse  fossils  appeared  to  sustain 
his  View,  and  they  were  accordingly  described  as  beldnging  to 
the  Hudson  River  group. 

TJp  to  1856  no  other  organic  remains  than  the  giàptolites 
and  the  two  species  of  brachiopods  noticed  by  Sir  William     '^ 
^8»^  ^^^^Jg».^Jg_,to  the  genlogical  Bumy^^^b^  Ih> 


400      CAMBRIAN  AND   8ILURIAN   IN   NORTH  AMERICA.       [XV. 


the  Point  Levia  rocks  ;  the  trilobites  long  before  observed  by 
Bigsby  not  having  been  rediscovered.  In  1856  the  présent 
writer,  while  engaged  in  a  lithological  study  of  the  varions 
rocks  of  Point  Levis,  found,  in  the'vicinity  of  the  graptolitic 
shales,  beds  of  what  were  described  by  him  in  1857  (Report 
Geol.  Surv.,  1853-1856,  page  465)  as  "  fine  granular  opjnque 
limestones,  weathering  bluish-gi^y,  and.,  holding  in  abundance 
remaius  of  orthoceratites,  trilobites,  and  other  fossils,  which 
are  replaced  by  a  yellow-weathering  dolomite."  In  thèse, 
which  are  prol^ly  what  Bigsby  had  long  before  described  as 
fossiliferous  conglomérâtes,  the  dolomitic  matter  is  so  arranged 
as  to  suggest  a  resemblance  to  certain  beds  which  are  really 
conglomerate  in  character,  and  were  at  the  same  time  described 
by  me  as  interstratiôed  with  the  fossiliferous  limestones,  and 
as  holding  pebbles  of  pure  liinestone,  of  dolomite,  and  occa- 
sionally  of  quafrtz  and  of  ,argiUite  ;  the  whole  cemented  by  a 
yellow-weathering  dolomite,  and  occasionally  by  a  nearly  pure 
carbonate  of  lime.  (Ibid,,  466.)  The  included  fragments  of 
argillite  (previously  noticed  by  Bigsby),  which  are  greenish  or 
purplish  in  color,  with  lustrons  surfaces,  are  precisely  similar 
to  those  which  form  great  beds  in  the  crystalline  schists  of  the 
,4l(Green"  Mountain  séries  of  the  Appalachian  hills,  which  extend 
in  a  northeaat  and  southwest  course  along  the  southeastern 
border  of  the  rocks  of  the  Québec  group.  I  conceivç,  that 
thèse  argillite  fragments  (like  those  in  the  Potsdam  ccwiglom- 
erate  near  Lake  Champlain,  ante,  page  268)  are  derived  from 
the  ancient  schists  of  the  Appalachians. 

This  rediscovery  of  fossiliferous  limestones  at  Point  Levis 
led  to  further  exploration  of  the  locality,  and  in  1857  and  the 
folio wing  years  a  large  collection  of  trilobites,  brachiopods, 
and  other  organic  remains  was  obtained  from  thèse  limestones 
by  the  geological  survey  of  Canada. 

Mr.  Billings,  who  in  1856  ha4  l)een  appointed  paleontolo- 

gist  to  the  geplogical  survey,  at  once  commenced  the  study  of 

thèse  fossils  from  Point  Levis,  and  at  length  arrived  at  the 

important  conclusion  that  the   organic  remains  there   found 

bftlnngftdj  Tint  to  t.he  an  m  mi  t.  nf  th»  8«Cf>nd   fanna,  l)Ut  Wflre  to 


^^i^ 


h*' 


H 


}m  i  ''  iltiv^'' 


-^a;r    ^1     "«r  ^ 


•  ""  ^'"-^^^  ^^  NORTH  AMERICA.     401 

•   "     be  assigned  à  position  in  the  fir«f  ^-      • 

conclusion  he  commuWed  to  M^  /"'"f '^^  ^^""^-     This 

a«d  gave  d ^iptio^  ^Z^y  of  tf"""^  ^'^' ''^^ 
Canadian^^aturaLforlZ'eyL     r?""/"™^  "^  *^« 
-  describing  the  rocks  of  pTn  Cs    o  re  ''"^^'l^  ^""^^^ 

thèse  fossiliferous  limestones  penetmted  ^v      ,    '   '  '""^"'""^ 
true  dolomitic  con-loraei^fP,  Il        ,7  ^  dolom.te,  with  the 
.    l;im  to  suppose  t^f^^^^  l^  ÎJ^  ^"'^  ^^^^ 
the  north  shore,  now  known  f n  k  *^^  iimestones  ôf 

,        take;.as  a  ver/natr^^Te^t  ^tL'eTC  '''''■     ^'''  "^- 
ontology  was  unknown  "  comparative  pale- 

the  peculiarities  of  the  Cones^?^^^^^^^^^ 
,pmnordiaIfauna,declaredhimJr    Tt  "^  '""^'^^^^  tJ»« 

that  'f  the  fo-Watof  the  aT^'r    r"»"'  '''^'  «^««««d 
of  the  discovery  b^Mr  BilZfj      ^^'^"    '"  ^'^^^nence 
-te  fro.  the  Uon  eI^  Sou^'^h?'" 'T^ 
B>g*by  and  Bayfield,  and  In^ed'to    t  ?rf  '  """  «^ 
tiquity  ;  regarding  it  as  "a  JlfH      7  ^"'^  ^*«^  «»- 

the  horizon  of  th^  Ch^,y  an^ïLlr  '^î^*  °'  «*^*«  «bout 
fece  by  an  overturn  ^l^^^l^^^^^  ^  th«  «u- 
,  dislocation  runningalon/htsut^'.,^*,^  '  T'^"'^^  ^  ^^««* 
question  were  "bL^ht  to  L  ?  l  ^^  ^'^'«'^  th^^^ks  in 
tioh."    This  seriesTftV  I,         'P  ^'^^  ^"*°"  Wforma- 

Moo  to  7,ooT£tri7th?rt"^^^^^^^ 

cjuded  the  g.en  sa^dstoneH  Silt^^^^^^    ^"p    w^ieh  ^- 
the  fossiliferous  limestone.  ar,^         .  ^^^"^^^  ^  the  summit, 
•which  afterwards  rdvTd  th«    ^^  '':"'  '^''''  ''  ^^e  base" 
and  a  g-à*  inter^^ellmal  of"^ ''  '^1  ^^^^«  ^«-^*-- 
caUed  the  Eau.on  fomation     4^?  '^"^'^  '"'^  -^'^'^«*«"««' 
in  the  strati^hicarvtr  Jj  *''"""*  ""^  ^^^  «^ange 

^ar^nde,  dard'D::lrbt  3/  IsT  T'^  '"  '?  ^^^^^  ^ 
Science  (2),  XXXI.  21fi  \  (Amencan  :rournal  of 


-\ 


Tïi.  «portant  dUtincUon  once  ^um^_  „  ^^.^^^^ 


^ 


A- 


402    camÏ^an  and 'silurian1|îE;,norti^; 


to,  draw  a  Une  from  thaï 
viçinity  of  L^ke  Cïiampîain,vfeparating~tl 
er  group      *      -  '  '       .r-w^     i     __  a 


XV 

X 

ir  Québec,     ïï:  ^ 

'erîy|ng  Ot^da  or  iJjypâu^t^^,  \"  ' 

so-called  Québec  group^rimb^ 

was  byspjgan  ascribed  ti^  é^-  » 

.ur^d  a  great  conformabîe  . 

of  the  members  of  the 

Gif  the  Potâdam  to  the  SfçEP-  - 

^^        ^      ,    ip,  and,  throughout  the  wHiplo 

i,,,j^ttnc»^j<^^iitBCç^  miles,  had  raised  lip  J|e 

IdWer  ion^^oiK8,i^a  contorted   and   inclined  attitude,  ^6^ 
caused  |h^"  to  overtie  in  mahy  cases  the  highbr  formations  6j|^ 
the  systHi.,    This  dividiijig  line  was  by  Logau  traeed  nortli|\ 
•eaatward  tl|^ugh  the  island  of  Orléans,  the  waters  of  the^ 
jQWeïSt.  Laurence,  and  along  the  north  shore  of  Gaspé  ;  and  '•* 
ottthtvestward  through  Vermont,  across  the  Hudson,  as  far  at\. 
^Ht  «as  Virginia  ;   separating,  throughout,  the   rocks  of  the 
^_3bec  and  Potsdam  groups,  with  their  primordial  fauna,  from 
thole  of  the  Trenton  and  Hudspn  River  groups,  with  the  second 
fâttna.    Thig  is  shôwn  i»  the  geqlofeic^  map  of  eastem  America 
from  Virginia  to  the  St.  I^wrence,  which  appears  in  the  Atlas 
to'  the  Geology  of  Canada,  published  in  1865.     In  a^.earlier 
geological  map,  published  by  Sir  William  Logan  at  Paris  in 
^l^^55,  béfore  this  distinction  had  been  drawn,  the  région  in 
quà'tion  in  eastem  Cana^  is  colored  partly  as  the,  Oneida 
fonnation,  and  partly  as  the  Hudson  Eiver  group;  while  in 
le  accompanying  text  the  Sillery  sandstone  is  spoken  of  as  the 
uivalent  of  the  Shawangunk  grit  or  Oneida  congfomerate  of 
the   New  York   system.      (Esquisse  Géologique   du  Cana'  ' 

Paris,  1855,  page  51.)     Thèse  n 
Lward  across  the  frontier  of^an 
fcluded  the  Red  «^nd- 
thus  by  Logan,  as 
Adams,  lookeci  upon  as  occupying''a  position  at  the  s 
the  secçwd  fauna.     When,  therefore,  in  1859,  Profe 
describ^hé  trilobites  found  in  thèse  slates  in  Georgia 
^crat,  be  referred  tfiem  to  the  geï»»^0/«M«,.whos6| 


Logan  and  Sterry  Hunt 
were  by  Logan  traeed  se 
into  Vermont,  where 
associated  slates  ;  whi 


i%i:''^. 

ican  Ji 

this  pc 

•         £^^-' 

Tore  pt 

-  the  tri 

K 

the  sha 

River  {. 

inclinée 

proper. 

y 

in  supp 

ogist  of 

gmphy 

■vvhen  M 

the  latte 

.  that  Sir 

' 

stratigra 

"from  t 

the  brea 

» 

and  Avitl 

authorize 

The  ty 

seen  in  t 

"i 

cent  part 

|; 

ing  two  t 

L&^  ' 

/  eingle  cru 
at 'IÇeese^ 

K 

m'  ' 

Owen  fou 

"  '^    from  rock 

dam  sandi 

•      in  1861, "a 

à 

Hills,  hav( 

¥' 

distributio 

m-K~ 

Bupposean 

'ï- 


i^ 


.)iàViv.v..,ti,,li." 


'*»-»- 


^CAMBRIAN  AND  SILURIAX  LV  NORTH  AMERICA,      433 
Jzon  in  Europe  was  then  weU  detemined,  but,  in  déférence 

;    .pt  never  having  examined  the  région  stratigmphic^ly    (AmZ 

ican  Journal  of  «ètence  (2),  XXXI.  221.)     In  ju^L  on  «f 

h.  portion  he^append.d.to  his  description  theCowtg  not^ 

,  (Ibid.,  pages  213.  221)  :  "In  addition  to  the  évidence  heS^ 

the  trUobites,  ;have  the  testiinony  of  Sir  William  Tn.,«n  ?!.  ? 

^iver  grpup,  or  fomnng  .part  of  a  séries  of  stmta  which  lie  is>. 

ir  t     Ïir^rK'  '^^*"^'  ^"P^^^^°  *^«  Hudson^R  ve^  ^ 
fn?       i  7'?'V^' 'l^^*^  «"P^^fl»^'"  for  me  to  add  one  wo^ 
^support  of  the  oi,inion  of  the  mî,st  able  stmtiaj^'i l'o^ 
og^B^of  the  American  continent"     Paleontolo^d  stmt 
Pjphy  hère  came  into  conflict,  and  it  wa^»not  tuî^  ifiTn 

Ihe  typical  Potsdam  sandstone  of  the  New  Ynrh  .rr., 
seen-in  the  Ottawa  b^in  in  north  J^^^^^^^^  ., 

cent  parts  of  Canada,  afi^Kb  h»t  &'^^M1Z  r  f^ 

ing  ewo  species  of  h^^^M^^T^S  ^'^''  "''^"^- 

Owen  ^nd  ^ndles^^ti  ^eS^lT^J^,^     [ 
from  rocks  which  were  regardée!  a«#he  e4uivajTn   of  theS 

hUa^-^/r.^  f  "^  ^'^  observSns?f  Shuta^^^Tl^^^^^  ^ 
m  1861.  and  the  lattér  ones  of  H^den  ^M^  i„  ,i  ^     " 

HUls,  hâve  emce  «till  further  exLded  L  knowled^nTihe 
distnbuion  and  the  or^a^c  Lii..:^Ai,^Zk,^^  ^ 


it,  the  Potadan»  and  talcffeî^    ,,,,^ 


pOMd"  to  represent, 
ous  formations  of  the 


"■'lîS. 


^ 


404      CAMBttlAN   AND   SiLUillAN   IN   NOBTH   AMERICA.       [XV. 

As  early  as  ^842,  ProVessor  Hall,  in  a  compariaon  of  the. 
lower  palajozoio  4ock8  of  New  York  with/those  of  Great  Britain, 
declared  tho  Potsdam  to  be  lower  than  fche  base  of  the  Upper 
Cambrian  or  Bala  group  of  Sedgwick.'  In  1847,  as  we  hâve 
seen,  he  extended  tins  observation  to  the  Calciferous  and 
Chazy,  both  of  which  he  placed  below  this  horizon  ;  which 
until  a  year  or  two  previous  had  been  looked  upon  as  the  base 
of  the  palœozoic  séries  in  Great  Britain,  and  was  subsequently 
made  the  lower  lirait  of  thd  second  fauna  of  Barrande,  Al- 
though  from  thèse  facts  it  ■vfras  probable  that  thèse  lower 
members  of  the  New  York  system  might  correspond  to  the 
primordial  fauna  of  *Barrandd,  we  stiil  remained,  in  the  lan- 
gage of  Professer  Hall,  \^ithout  "  thé  means  of  parallelizing 
our  formations  with  those  of  Bohemia,  by  the  fauna  there 
known.  THe  nearest  approach  to  the  type  of  the  primordial 
trilobites  was  found  in  the  Potsdam  of  the  northwest,  de- 
scribed  by  Dr.  D.  D.  Owen  ;  but  none  of  thèse  had  been 
generically  identified  with  Bohemian  forms,  and  the  prevailing 
opinion,  sanctioned,  as  I  hâve  understood,  by  Mr.  Barrande, 
was  that  the  primordial  fauna  had  not  been  discovered  in  this 
country .until  thè.redigcoveiiy  (in  1856)  oî  ParadoxioUs  Harlani 
at  Braintree,  Massachusetts.  The  fragmentary  fossils  published 
in  Vol.  I.  of  the  Paleohtblogy  of  New  York,  and  simrlar  ferma 
of  the  so-called  TaÈonic  system,  wére  justly  regarded  as  in- 
sufficient  to  warrant  any  conclusions."  (Amer.  Jour.  Sci.  (2), 
XiXI.  225.)  Such,  according'to  Prof.  Hall,  was  the  state  of 
the  question  up  to  1860.  Th&iJonocephalus,  detected  by  him 
from  the  Red  sand-rock  of  Vermont,  in  1847,  and  subse- 
quently recogni^d  in  Europe  as  an  exclusively  primordial 
type,  seems  to  hâve  been  forgotten  by  Hall,  and  overlooked  by 
others,  until  it  was  rediscovered  in  the  sand-rock  by  Billings 
in  1861.  He  had  previously,  in"  1860,  detected  the  ^t^me 
genus  at  Point  Levis,  together  with  Arionellus,  and  «other 
purely  primordial  types.  Associated  with  thèse,  and  with 
many  otber  trilobites  belonging  to  the  secon^.  fauna,  were 
found  several  species  of-  DikeUocephalus  and  Menpcephalus, 
=pnéra.""first  madé  knôwn  by^Owên  fiûm  fee  Potskjpa  o^^  Wis^ 


** 


Eï-  :■* 


^^.,.„,^,,^,,..,^, 


; 


\ 


^V.]      CAMBBIAN  AND   SILUBIAn' IN  NOETH  A^EEipA.     1o5 

consin.     It  is  by  an  error  that  Messrs.  Harkness  anH  H;  b 
m  a  récent  paper  (Quar.  Geol.  Jour    XXVII  Tq.TI  '' 

sertbd  that  Owen  in  }R^9    f     ^  A''  ^-^^"-  ?95).  V^  as- 

Profelr  Haf  if  *^^f«''«''-'^-  ^-^«-,  alluded   to  by 
xiuiessor  nalJ,  is  as  f ollows  :  in  is-îi    rt„    x      v  r, 

/Tar/aat.    (Amer.  Jour.  Sci    (l\    XXV    ^^r  \  T    10^^ 
attention  of^rofessor  Wil  J^'.  ^J.  l'Lneî  t"    ;^r 
^y  of  prganic  remains  in  Braintree,  on  the  border  of  Quirv 
Mas^chusetts^  .hex.,  on  examination,  he  at  once  L^ 

«le  ong^nal  spécimen.  This  was  announced  by  him  in  a  corn 
«.umcatxon  to  the  American  Academy  of  Scie/ces  fp  oc  VoÎ 
lll'ï""''  T^"^  '^'  ^'^'^''''  «««  «^  «"'"^  «f  the  rocks  of  east 

Z  ffcXMr^-  ^;?^^^  ^«^«'^  *^-  -"«d  attentiolt 
«le  fec  hat  this  genu^of  trilobites  is  characteristic  of  the  pri- 
mordial fauna,  and  noticed  that  Barrande  had  ah-eady  remarked 

MlrdS-irX'''/-  ''«'"«"^'  -  the.London'schooI  of 
Mines  and  fesBritish  Mus^mi  (which  had  been  made  from  the  ' 
original  spécimen,  and  dil^ted  hv  Vt.   n        \   "*'/™™ '^'^^ 

•ppea^d  to  be  M  nti  J»^  "ij^%^rsv  TT 

jjjj^  ^IFp  ■^-  «/'*«o«tM  trom  Skrey  in  Bohe- 

TnJrf  J.*®'.^*^^''  ^°"°d   in  spécimens  sent  to   the  -Bristol 
^rom  the  Tfomontoiy  bé|%en  St.  Maiy^s  and  I^centialtay^    " 


% 


]^ 

% 

406      CAMBBIAN  iîîD  SILUEIAN   IN   NOETIJ   AMERICA.      [XY. 

in  the  southwestem  part  of  tliis  island,  aWffa^ilobite,  d&- 
scribed  by  him  aa  Parftdoxùles  ^eM«j«|PPfil^BW«ur.,  ,^V/>; 
654),  whick  appears,  according  to  Mr.  Billings,  to  be  ideâtical 
with  P.  HMani.  On  the  same  occasion'  Salter  described, 
under  thifijtftme  of  Conocephalitea  antiquatua,  a  trilobite  from  a 
coUectioi^rat' American  fosails  sent  by  Dr.  Feuchtwaligei' of 
New  YQmJi(f>  the  London  Exhibition  of  1851.  This  was  said 
to  occwhj^n  la  bowlder  of  browu  sandstone  from  Greorgia,  and,  as 
I  haVe.  been  informed  by  Dr.  Feuchtwanger,  ,was  found  near 
Hiifi  ioyhi  of  Columbns  in  that  State. 

The  slates  of  v^.  John,  New  Brunswick,  and  its  vicinity 
bavé  recently  yielded  an  abuiidant  faiinae^.exàmined  by  Pr©- 
fessor  Hartt,  who'at  once  recognized  its  primordial  character. 
This  conclusion  was  first  announced,  on  the  authority  of  Pro- 
fessor  Hartt,  in  a  Daper  by  Mr.  G.  F.  Matthew,  in  May,  1865, 
(Geo5t%our.,  XXI.^2^.)  -The  rocks  of  this  région  hâve  afforded 
two  species  oi  Para(Mndet  and  fourteen  of  Conocoryphe,  to- 
gether  with  Agnostu»  and  Mierodiscua,  ail  of  which  havé  been 
described  by  Professer  Hartt.  It  majbhere  be  noticed  that,  in 
1862,  Professer  Bell  found  in  tlfè' bïàek  shales  of,;jthe  Dart- 
mouth  Valley,  in  Gaspë,  a  single,  specimén  qf  a  large  .jtrilobite, 
which,  according  to  MrMp|ingSj(#osely  reiembles  Paradoxides 
Uarlani,  hi\t ^ÎTOva.  its  inîperfectly  preserved  coùditi'iin  cannolj^^ -^ 

.^certainly  be  identified  >v|th  it     (Geol.  Cant^da,  page  882.)  ' 

Th€|,geûlogical  examiiM||^i  of  Mi.  AÏ^nder  Midi|ty  in   ,^ 
Newfoundlan'd,  since  1865,  Mvç  shown  that^'the  ^gutheastern  ^^ 
,  p9^  of  tJiat  island  a>ntàins  a  great  volume  ofJÉIpbrian  rocks, 
estîmated  by  him  at  about  6,000  feet  iniall.  -^«wo  twîces  of  the       ^ 
Upp«r'  .Combrian  or  second  fauua  iMHbeen  deteded  among 
thèse;  but  sope  portions  cpntain  thelÉRaopdes  already  nj;eu- 
tionecïj^whiKivothers  yiel(f'tlle  faunaS'fyhich  Mr.  Billings  ha§ 
(^^d  Lower  Potsdam.  ,  This  name  was  first  given  in  an  ap- 

,:  pSadix  (prepared  by  Sir  "William, Loga»)  to  Mr.  Murray's  report 
|n  Newfoundland  for  Î865,  published  in  1866  (page  46  ;  see 
aiso  Report,  of  the  GeoL  Suryey  of  Canada  for  1866,  page  236). 
The  Lower  Potsdam  was  there  assigued  a  place  above  the  Par- 
adoxides  btds  or  the  itegion.  which  were  called  the  St.  John 


Uf  V  , 


J^s." 


XV.]       CAMBRIAN  AND  SILURIAN   IN  NORTH  AMERICA.      407 
group,l--the  fossiliferoua  strata  of  St.  John,  New  Brunswick 

tauift,,   m  southeaatern  Newfoundland  is  not  vet  clear  •  tl.« 

with  that  found  on  the  Strait  of.BelIi8le.%t  Bic  (on  the  soutJi 
8^.ore  of  the  nver  St.  Law«,nce.  below  Québec)'/ at  Georria 
Vermo*!  and  ^*  ^roy,  New- York,  but  in  none  o£  th3h 

fauna.     The-  tfUobxtes   hitherto   described   frogi   thèse  rocS 

nfeitW  Ww.,,  which  characterizes  the  Menevian  and  th^ 
ifc  Harlech^bed.in  Wale,  nor  Olenus.  which  thet 
LwWd    '  r.    ^^"^«^"^'«^y  »t«ve  tlûs  horizon,  having 

Deiow  insKffW  above  the  Menevian  horizon. 

LTo  the  abové^ra  of  trilobites  occurring  at  Troy  Mr 
Ford  has  smce  (i*73)  added  Microdiscus,  which  Z  also 
been  found  atBib.  Thà  genus  ia  common  L  the  Menevian 
and  the  underlymg  Harlech  rocks  in  Wales,  and  is  also,  accoM^- 

Virginia^    The  straia  which  contain  this  fauna  at  T«)y  ^ 
descnbed  by  Ford,  are  of  considérable  thickness    conS,!! 

Tr^  Ll  f  r'^''"^'"  '"'^"'T^'i^^d  eroded  anticlinal, 

Utica  or  Hudsop  Jxver  group,  the  whole  dipping  eastward. 
(Amencan  Journal  of  Science  (3),  VI   134  )]  «'^'«^ara. 

The  characteristic  ifenevian  fauna  in  and  near  St.  John/ 
New  Brunswxckj  is  found  in  a  band  of  about  one  hund  ed  an/ 
f^y  feet,  towar^  the  base  of  a  séries  of  nearly  vertical  sand 

tTcrTstalî'^f  tr'^^^^^'  '^  conglomérâtes,  and  reZg 
upon  crystallin^  schists,  in  a  narrow  basin.  The  séries,  Se 
total  thickness  «f  which  is  estimated  by  Messrs.  Matthewïnd 
Bailey  at  overW  feet,  contain.  T  ingukthroughouVbi^^a 


««» 


Bâsr 


yjj'é-jy't^. 


408      CAMBHIAN  AND  8ILURIAN  IN   NOKTH   AMERICA,      [XV. 

yielded  no  remains  of  a  higher  fauna.     The  same  Menevian 
forma  hâve  been  found  in  small  outlying  areaa  of  similar  rocks, 
at  two  or  three  places  nojith  of  the  St.  John  basin,  but  to  the 
Bouth  of  the  New  Brunswick  coal-field.     To  the  uorth  of  thia 
is  a  broad  belt  of  similar  argillitea  and  aandstones,  which  ex- 
tends  southwestward  into  the  State  of  Maine.     This  belt  haa 
hitherto  •  yielded  no  organic  remains,  but  ia  compared  by  Mr. 
Matthew  to  the  Cambrian  rocks  «jf  the  St.  John  basiïi,  and  to 
the  gold-bearing   séries   of  Nova    Sco^ia  (Geol.  Jour.,  XKI. 
427),  which  at  the  same  time  resemblea  closely  the  Cambrian 
rocks  of  southeastorn  Newfoundland.     This  was  remarked  by 
Dr,  Dawson  in  1860,  when  he'expreaaed  the  opinion  that  the^ 
auriferoua  rocks  of  Nova  Scotia  were  "  the  continuation  of  the 
older  slate  séries  of  Mr.   Jukes  in  Newfoundland,  which  bas 
afforded   Paradoxidea,"   and   probably  the  équivalent  of  tho 
^Lingula  flaga  of  Wales.     (Supplément  to  Acadian  Geology 
(1860),  page  53;  also  Âcad.  Geol.,  2d  éd.,  page  613.)    Asso- 
ciated with  thèse  gold-bearing  strata,  along  the  Atlantic  coast 
of  Nova  Scotia,  occur  fine-grained  gneisses,  and  mica-schists 
■w-ith  andalusite  and  staurolite  ;  besides  other  crystalline  schists 
which  are  chloritic  and  dioritie,  and  contain  crystallized  epi- 
dote,  magnetite,  and  menaccanite.     Thèse  two  types  of  crys- 
talline schists  (which,  from  their  stratigraphical   relations,  as 
weU  as  from  their  minerai  condition,  appear  to  be  more  ancient 
than  the  uncryatalline  gold-bearing  strata)  were  in  1860,  as 
now,  regarded  by  me  as  the  équivalents  respectively  of  the 
White  Mountain  and  Green   Mountain   séries  of  the  Appa- 
lachians,  as  will  be  seen  by  référence  to  Dr.  Dawson's  work 
just  quoted.     At  that  time,  however,  and  for  many  years  after, 
I  held,  in  common  with  most  American  geologists,  the  opinion 
that  thèse  two  groups  of  crystalline  schists  were  altered  rocks 
of  a  more  récent  date  than  that  asaigned  to  the  auriferous  séries 
of  Nova  Scotia  by  Dr.  Dawaon,  who  was  much  pei^ilexed  by 
the  difficulty  of  reconciling  this  view  with  his  own.     Tho  diffi- 
culty  is,  however,  at  once  removed  when  we  admit,  as  I  hâve 
maintained  since   1870,  that  both  of  thèse  groups  are  pre- 
Cambrian  in  âge.     (Amer. .  Jour.  Sel  (2),  L.  83  j  ante,  pages 
^76  smd  -327.) — — — 


\. 


■* 


% 


■r!^^: 


XV.]      CAMBBUN  Ap  8ILUHUK  6r  »0«TH  ÀMElttÇ^    *403 
A  natice  by  Mr.  Selsyn  of  eome  of .  th^  cmtalline  schiste 
^  Nova  Scotm  will  be  Ibund  in  the  Keport<rf  Zq^SS 
,.      Survey  of  Canada  for  1870  /na«e  271i      H«  fî.     "^'^W  ■ 

"^  atrata  to   tho  Hariech  grita  and  Lingula  flag  '  f  IS  ^ 
Wa^.^d  announooa  the  diacove^  am^  thè^^r^SS 
Ovens  god-mme  i„  Lunenbu,^,  Nova  Sddtia,  of  Beckiar  o^  ^ 
■     ^«^c  -arkmg,  regard^d  by  Mr.  Billings  as  id US^^'h  tS 
Lophyton  L.nnœanurn,  wHich  is  found  In  the  Regïo  Pu  Jdar^ 
at  l^e  base  of  tho  Cambrian  in  ^Sweden.     In  L  vSe  ^> 
quoted  page  269)  wiU  be  fbund  some  notes  ^  S^Sh^ 
^th^  fb.sil,  whichoccu^al^  near  a^ohn.  ^^ 
^ra^uppos^  to  u,.deri^,  ,h,   ParadoxidaTM^^ . 

S^i  ^      r^^  byMr.  Murray  as  bigler  thS  ^ 
oÎS  ^«;«^«-î^^*.  and  eontaining  also  tw^o  new  species 

cent'S.:  ''"""•  '"'  "^^"^  ^'^^-'^«-  ^  --  - 
Znfh  M^Si*''''"'P"^"*^  ^y  thèse  same  fucoids,  h^^been 
^dby  Mr.  fiUhngs  at  St.  Laurent,  o^  the  island  Jf^S- 
near  Québec  m  8t«.ta  hitTierto  referred  by  thegeote^rr- 
vey  on  stratigraphical  grounds,  tç,  the  ^ebec^bfr^X' 
^T  ^''r'  ^^^-^iW-S^  tends  to'^sho^  th^this^^ 

As  pgards  the  probable  dotvnward  extension  of  thèse  forms    ' 

^^''^^"^  ^"^  "^-^  the  .cent  ÏÏ;^ 
Ot  JVtn  Hicks.  CQuar  Jour.  GeoL  Soc,  May,  1872  page  174  ^ 
After  a  comparative  studv  of  the  T.nw«r y>     iT     -  V^        ■'     .  " 

Ilongh  .nimal  iife  wa,  r«*rictod  t^tli»  fe„  type,  ... 

i-Lj,jcijrH Lûo^ftwt-kwHhartnîoïiJësTiad  attained  "^" 


.  ■/ 


rvr^ 


iH    ' 


410     CAMBRIAN  AND  SILUllIAN  IN  NOETH  AMERPCA.      [XV. 

their  maxitnum  size  at  this  .period,  and  that  forms  were  présent 
représentative  of  aliuost  every  stage  in  development,  from  the  ^ 

'  little  Agnostua  with  two  rings  to  the  thorax,  and  Mierodiscus 
with  four,  to  Erihnys  with  twenty-four,  and  blind  gênera  along 
with  those  having  the  largest  eyes,  leads  to  the  conclùéion  that 
for  thèse  several  stages  "to  "hâve  taken  place  numerous  prévi- 
ens faunas  must  hâve  had  an  existence,  and,  moreover,  that 
even  at  this  time  in  the  history  of  our  globe  an  enonnous  p^ 
riod  had  elapsed  since  life  iirst  dawned  upon  it."  '         •  ^^^ 

The  facts  insisted  upon  by  Hicks  do  not  appear  to  be  in- 
consistent with  the  view  that  at  this  horizon  the  tfilobites  had 
,  already  culminated.     Such  dofes   not,  however,  appear  to  be    ■ 
the  idea  of  Barrande,  who  in  a  récent  learned  essay  upon  the 
trilobitic  fauna  (1871)  has  drawn  from  its  state  of  development  l, 

at  this.  early  perioci  cgiiclusions  strongly  opposed  to  the  theory  ^ 

bf  dérivation. 

The  strata  holding  the  first' fauna  in  southeastern  Newfounds 
land  rest  unconfomiably,  according  to  Mr.  Murray,  uppii  what 
he  has*  called  the  Intermediate  séries  ;  \v;hich  is  of  great  thick- 
ness,  cwisists  chiefly  of  crystalline  rocks,  ànd  is  supposed  by 
him  to  represent  the  Huronian.  He  ha^,  however,  ïnqjiuded  in 
this  intermediate  séries  several  thousand'^et  of  sandstones  ► 
and  argillites  "Wliich,  near  St.  John's  in  Newfoundlanljkàre  seen 
to  be  unconfor;nably  overlaid  by  the  fossiliferous  strata  already 
kioticed,  and  "Ij^ve  yielded  twî^  species  of  org&nic  forms,  lately 
described  by  Mç.  Billings.  One  of  thèse  is  an  Arenicolitea, 
like  the  A.  spiralis  found  in  the  Lower  Cambrian  beds  of  S\ve- 
den,  and  the  other  a  patella-like  shell,  to  which  he  has  given 
the  name  of  Aspjdella  Terranovica.  (Amer.  Jour.  Science  (3), 
.111.  223.)  Thèse,  from  theii*  stratigraphical  |>08iti,on, -havé 
been.  reganled  as  Huronian  j  bht  from  the  lithological  descrip- 
*tion  of  Mr^  MuAay,  the. strata  coniaining  them  appear  to,  be 

^       *  unlike  the  great  mtfes  of  the  H.ijfonian  rocks  oftbthe  région. 

r  Their  occurrericfc  in  those  strata,  in  either  caae,  ^ârks  a  dow^ 

;•  ward  extenpion  of  thèse  forms  of  palœozoic  life.  • 

Mr.  Billing6(  ^has  described  from  thé  rocks  of  the  first  failniarf'Vj 
certain  forms  under  tbç  name  of  Archeôcyathu»,  one  of'^ 


^ 


f  % 


■'i-'"' 


^.1-  CAMBEIAN  ANB  B.LURIAN  m  KOETH  AMEKICA.     4U 
■  ■      ria     îf  *"•"!""'  °'  "■«  "PPor  cristalline  schi  l,  of  Bav^ 

foLd^j,      ■        î      '   y"'  '"  ^"^SresB,   ou  l'Île   earKer 

foïiSfd  hv  ï-  ^''  '^'  •"'"''  ^^  /'a^-a^rocAi,,  certain 
1^^  ^'™  »«,  «"^anic.  found  in  North  Carolina  in 

f.^-.Tl  ?T'     ^^«"^^  «i^anic  naturo  has  also   been"  main 

tamed  by  Professer  Wnrtz,  but  from  my  owir  ^aminAw 

.agreewxth  the  opinion  expi^ssed  hy  Frof^r^TÊ    '^ 

'aK^S^rTrl.'/^  observais  07^0^'.^' 


f  ' 


« , 


iabors  ô^  BîHmgslànd.  Salter.  ~  "^ 


/f 

'*•' 


■    -    *1 


*    • 


i^^ 


412      CAMBRIAN  AND   SILURIAN   IN  NORTH  AMERICA.       [XV. 

The  former  has,  moreover,  carefiilly  compared  this  fauna  with 
that  of  the  lower  inembers  of  the  New  York  System,  in 
which  the  succession  of  organic  life  appears  to  hâve  boen 
Very  much  interrupted.  ïhus,  according  to  Mr.  Billings,  of 
the  ninety  species  known  to  exist  in  th»  Chazy  limestone 
of  the  Ottawa  basin,  only  twenty-two  species  hâve  been  ob- 
served  to  pass  up  into  the  directly  overlying  Birdseye  and 
Black  River  limestones,  which  form  the  lower  part  of  the 
Trenton  group.  The  break  in  the  succession  between  the 
Chazy  and  the  underlying  Calciferous  sapd-rock  in  this  région 
is  still  more  complète  ;  since,  according  to  the  same  authority, 
of  forty-four  species  in  the  latter  only  two  pass  up  into  the 
Chazy  limestone.  This  latter  break  appears  to  be  tilled,  in  the 
région  to  the  eastward  of  the  Ottawa  basin,  by  the  Levis 
limestone  ;  which  has  been  studied  near  Québec,  and  also 
near  Phillipsburg,  ïiot  far  from  the  outlet  of  Lake  Champlain. 
This  formation  (fçcluding  the  accompanying  graptolitic  shales) 
haa  yielded,  up  to  the  présent  time,  two  hundred  and  nineteen 
species  of  organic  remains  (bomprising  seventy-four  of  crus- 
tacea  and  fifty-one  of  graptolitidiae),  none  of  which,  according 
Mr.  Billings,  hâve  been  found  eitlier  in  the  Potsdam  or  in  the 
Birdseye  and  Black  RiVer  limestone.  Twelve  of  the  species 
of  the  Levis  formation  are,  however,  met  with  in  the  Calcifer- 
ous, and  five  in  the  Chazy  of  the  Ottawa  basin,  and  the  Levis 
is  thcrefore  regarded  by  Mr.  Billings  as  the  Connecting  link 
betweçn  thèse  two  formations. 

With  regard  to  the  British  équivalents  of  thèse  rocks,  the 
Levis  limestone,  according  to  8alter,  corresponds  to  the  Tre- 
njadoc  beds  ;  although  the  species  of  Dikellacephcdus  found  in 
the  Levis  rocks  are  by  him  compared  with  those  found  in  the 
.  Upper  Lingula  flags  or  Ddlgelly  beds.  The  graptolitic  strata 
of  Levis,  however,  clearly  represent  tiie  Arenlg  rocks  of  North 
Wales,  the  Skiddaw  group  of  Sedgwick  in  Cumberland,  the 
graptolitic  beds  which  in  Esthonia,  according  to  Schmidt,  are 
found  below  the  orthoceratite  limestones  (Can.  Naturalist  (1), 
Vr.  345)  and  those  of  Victoria  in  Australia  (Mem.  Geol.  Sur., 
IIL  Part  IL  255,  3Q|).     In  the  Arenig  and  Upper  TmmnHnn 


<si 


I     .     . 


.   ^.   il 


K^?-'.'    ■ 


XV.]      CAMBRIAN   AND  SILURIAN  IN  NOETH  AMERICA.      413 

beds  there  appears  to  be,  in  North  Wales,'a  mingling  of  foms 
of  the  first  and  second  faunas,  as  in  the  Levis  and  CW 
formations.  The  Iatt,r  .was  already,  by  Hall,  in  184^  deda  el 
to  be  beneath  the  Silurian  horizon  then  recognized  in  Gr^at 

2Ti:  rVî  "  '^  i''  '^'^^^  compax^tively  isolated  froml 
strate  both  below  and  aboveit.  Accordin^  to  a  private  com- 
mumcation  from  Professor  Jan.e,  Hall,  the  ChazyLeÎoneTli 
Mjddlevdle,  Herkimer  County,  I^ew  York,  to  thLoutl  onht 
Adirondacks  is  wanting,  and  the  basai  beds  of  the  Won 
group  the  Birdseye  limestone)  there  rest  unconfo^mably  upo" 
the  Calcilerous  sand-rock.  ^    ^ 

The  relations  of  the  varions  membei^  of  the  Québec  group 

W  rr,'  ""'!'''  ^""P'  -  ^  ^^«^^'  ^  *he  succeed  n' 

Tren  on  and  Hudson  liiver  groups,  require  further  elucidation! 

Il'/    iT    ^T""^   *"   ^'^''^''  ^^«   8ontheastvvard-dippin<» 
senes  of  the  older  strata  near  Québec  exhibits  the  northwelt 
side  of  an  overturned  and   eroded   anticlinal,  in  whil'X 
normal  order  of  the  strata  is  inverted,  then  the  Lauzot  ani 
SiUery  divisions  which  there  appear  to  overiie  the  Levis  li^e- 
stones  and  shales,  a^j,  older  rocks,  occupying  the  position^of 
i^e  Potsdam  or  of  stlu  lower  membex.  of  th:  Camb  J     st 
William  Logan  supposes  the  appearance  of  thèse  rocks  in  tàx£ 
présent  attitude^^by  the  side  of  the  strata  of  the  Trenton  a«d 

a  iT  ^7  r"^'  '"^  '^'  "'""^^^  «^  Q-^^^^'  *«  be  due  to 
ofT  t  r  '",'"^  "P'^^*  subséquent  to  tlie  déposition 
of  thèse  higher  rocks;  but,  a^  elsewhere  suggested  (ante,  page 
263  ,  I  conceive  the  Qu.bec  group  to  hâve  been  in  its  pl^seS 
uptu  ned  and  disturbed  condition  before  the  déposition  of  the 
Trenton  hmestones.  The  snpposed'  dislocation  an.l  uplift,  ex- 
tending  frcvn  the  Guif  of  Sf.  Lawrence  to  Virgin ia,'i/accoX     * 

w  b    \?;i'  '"*  ""  '"^^^^P  ^'  ^^«  -^«  ^^  '^^  «-t  ^-a 

fZ.   ■  rf  1  r  ""«''"^•^""«bly  overlying  stmta  of  the  second  . 

auna.     xhe  later  movements  alorig  the  borders  of  the  Appa-  t 

kchian  région  hâve    how.ver,  to  some  extent,  affected  th^  ^ 
^^their  tum,  and  thui  compHcated  the  relations  of  the  twô 

r  ^lJ^!!.."""""^"""^*^'  ''^''^  corresponds  tn  fJ..  n,..!..^  ' 
break  bHtwëtin-thaT^H^T^-^^^XT'^rmr— .r--^— -".   ';^-  ^t^-^^''-^--* 


v.^^i.  .    ,  -""— --r^'y,  vvuicu  corresponds  to  tjie  mnrked 

bieak  between  the  LeVis  ma  Trenton  fm^k^^è^^ 


P 


•»,■ 


'i 


||^t.i-.»i»(„...#.*-.  ..«J^wJtl'.i^ 


n  ;'r. 


S'*. 


-  '*-:.f^A 


u* 


■■■fï»l-  'S?" 


414      CAMBRIAN   AND   SILUKIAN  IN  NORTH  AMERICA.      [XV. 


£> 


-*<> 


by  the  stratigraphical  break  and  discordance  in  Herkimer 
County,  New  Yotk  ;  and  by  the  fact  that  beyond  the  limita 
of  tlie  Ottawa  basin,  on  either  side,  the  limestoue  of -the  Tren- 
ton  groiip  rests  directly  on  the  crystalline  rocks;  the  ojder 
menibers  of  the  New  York  sy^tem  being  altogether  absent  at 
the  nortbern  outcrop,  as  wéll  as  in  tite  outliorrf"  of  -Trenton 
limestone  seen  at  tlie  uorth  of  Lake  Ontario,  and  as  far  to  the 
northeast  as  Lake  St.  John  on  the  Sagnenay.  This'  clistribu- 
tion  shows  that  a  considérable  movement,  jûst  previous!.to  the 
Trenton^period,  took  place  both  to  the  west  and  the  east  of  " 
Adirondack  région,  which  foruied  the  sot^hem  boundary  of  the 
Ottawa  basin.  \ 

[Lesley  observes,  "^Thefe  are  certainly\  évidences  of  some 
obscure  uncônfonpability  between  the  limestpnes  of  II.  and 
the  slattes  of  III.,"  which  inimediately  overlie  then^irt^the  grcat 
Appalachian  valley  iij  Pennsylvania.  This  horizon  corresponds 
toothe  base  of  the  Trejtiton  (see,  further,  page  421),  and'  the  ,. 
évidence  consists  jn  the  dififetent  strike  of  the  rocks  of  the  two 
divisions,  that  of  the  overlying  slates  ,being  always  with  the 

^  Valley,  while  the  limestone-outcrops  otten  cross  it  at  varions 
angles.  Lesley  appears  tp  regard  tïig.  discordance  of  no  great 
importance;  bat  it  deserves  further  stadyln  connection  with 
the  évidences  of  a  siniiLar  want  «f  conformity  farther  north- 
ward.    (Proc.  American  PhilosophS^t^  Society!^  December,  1864, 

..page  469.)  ' , 

[There  are,  as  wé  hâve  seen,  two  brçaks  i^  the  succession  of 
life  in  the  Ottaw^  basin,  the  one  at  the  base  of  the  Trenton 
group,  and  the  other  at  the  base  of  the  Chazy  ;  and  in  this 

-connection,  besides  the  fact  of  the  absence  of  the  latter  between 
the  Çalciferous  and  Trenton,  obseryed  by  Hall  in  Herkimer   -~v. 
(^ount#,  New  York,^hould  be  noticed  the  remarkable  section 
near'Grenville   on  the  Ottawa,  described  "by  Logan  in   the 
Gèology  of  Canada.     Hère,  at  whab  is  regarded  as  the  base  of       '    : 
the  Chazy,  a  conglomerate  layjgr  of  seven  feet,  made  up  of  lime-  f 

stone  pebbïes,  resta  upon  beds  of  yellow-weathering  limestbne,  ! 

TOpposed  to  be  magnésian,  and  holdingobscure  fossils  ;  while 
above  it  are  fifty  feet  of  aandstonx^j^^^^mes  coBglomerate,       a^> 


îgobsc 


4         It   V 


tf.ï> 


r      '^     1 


,r'' 


/•  ''4^^t^^-K  -V-^>;.'-'^  ■  '^•'.v-''r--:.'^^^--{''^^^. 


ÏT.J      CAMBBIAN  AND  SILUBIAS  m  NORTH  AJfKEICA.     415 

Bhow,  them  to  beZ^l  1  ^''"/  '^''"''  '""""«■  "«* 

or  southeastern  Newfmir.fllo...i   i'  •  >  -^■«cw    jsrunswick, 

and  W  Carhpnife,™,  p^rfodi.     Those  den\ed  ,tZ  ^f' 
(«rent  rocfa,  been  boked  „p„„  a.  «ample,  <^  .  „b«^„Z 


y 


i^ 


\i. 


''■*: 

s  , 

■  ^\ 

1 

y» 

-< 

-.«-*■'       #f 


•■"■'■v  i' 


v& 


4l6      CAMBRIAN  AND   SILURIAN  IN 


NORTH  AMERICA.       [XV. 


,%firoughout  this  région  hâve  been  looked  upon  as  the  ^psult  of 

«jftigenic  change  of  thèse  various  palajozoic  strata  ;  portions 

which,  hère   and   there,   were    supposed  to   hâve   escaped 

onversion,  and  to  hâve  retained  more  or  less  p^rfectly  their 

dimentary  character,  and   théir  organic    remains,  felscwhero 

pBliterated. 

From  the  absence  of  the  second  fauna  we  may  conclude  that 
the  great  Appalachian  area  vvas,  at  least  in  New  Enj'land  and 
■*>*.  Canada,  above  the  océan  during  its  period,  and  sufteretj'  a  par- 
tial and  graduai  subraergence  in  the  time  of  the  third  fauna. 
This  movenient  corresponds  to  the  wefl-marked  paleontological 
and  stmtigrapliical  bréak  between  the  second  and  third  founas 
in  the  great  continental  basin  to  the  westward,  made  évident 
by  the  ajjpearance  of  the  Oueida  or  Shawangunk  congloiûerate 
(apparently  derived  from  the  ruins  of  Lower  Cambrian  rocks) 
which,  in  some  parts,  overlies  the  strata  of  the  Hudson  River 
group.  The  breàk  is  elsewhere  shown  by  the  absence  ôf  this 
conglomerate,  and  of  the  succeeding  formations  up  to  the 
^  Lower  Helderberg  division.  This  latter,  in  the  valley  of  the 
v^t.  Lawrence,  rests  unconformably  upon  the  strata  of  the  sec- 
ond fauna,  as  it  does  upon  the  older  crystalline  rocks  to  the 
oastward. 

In  Ohio,  acoording  to  Newberry,  the  base  of  the  rocks  of  the 
third  faui\^  (CHnton  and  Médina)  is  represented  by  a  conglom- 
erate which  holds  in  its  pebbles  the  or^nic  remains  of  the 
underlying  strata  of  the  second  fauna. 
j        To  the  norfcheastward  the  island  of  Anticosti  in  the  Gulf  of 
\    St.  Lawrence  présents  a  succession  of  about  1,400  feet  of  cal- 
careous  strata  rich  in  .organic  remaïiis,  which,  nccording  to  Mr. 
Billings,  include  the  specîes  of  the  Médina,  Clinton,  and  Niag- 
,  ara  formations,  and  were  napied  by  him,  in  18.57,  the  Anticosti 
1  group.     They  rest  upon  nearly  1,000  feet  of  almost  horizontal 
jstrata,  consist^ng  of  limestones  and  shales  rich  in  oï^anic  re- 
toaiiil^  with  many.  included  beds  of  limestone-congloraefate. 
This  lower  séries  bas  by  the  geological  survey  of  Canada  been 
îpferred  4iO  the  Hudson  Rivet  group  ;  but,  notwithstanding  the 
Utob  niimf)ftr  of  forma  of  thfi  Bscond  fanna  which  it  contaîna_I 


M'  • 


..„jk.' 


-m-' 


"XV.].    (iMBRIAX  AND  SILURIAN  IX  NORTH  AAIEmCA.      417 

Professor  Shaler  h  disposée!  to  look  upon  k  i  youn^er  and 

b«long,ng  ..therto  thejj.cceeding  division.     Thers^eLs  it 

'        conTand^rd'r^'^'  paleontologieal  break  beJLn  th 

Tote  inthl!     '^  t-'^"^  "*  *'"«  '^Sion;  a«d  it  is  worthy  of 

the  W^  and  refe^ed  to  that  ,.oup.  (àeolog,  of  Cat;^ 
of  Ih!  IToclî-  ''''"'''  '^  '''''  ^'-  ^'"^"S^  gave  the  name 
ÔcdÏÏd    ifnT'  "  "'"ï  '^  subsequently  included.  the 

and    h  •       'l'     ■"'  r  "^'  '^'-  *^«  ^--^  Helderberg  divi^fon 
and  the  underlying  Onondaga  formation.     (Report  Geol    Z 
Can     1857    page  248  ;  and  Geol  Can.,  page  20.)     Both  thé 

[The  name  of  Middie  Silurian  was  at  one  time  used  bv  th. 
geolog^ca  surVey  of  Great  Britoi„  to  denig  J"L  Lowef  and 

Si^ul     tÏ      ^'^""*,\SyBtem  or  in  the  varions  éditions  of 

narr;o/   V"^"'^'^  ^^  ^y^"  (^*"^«°*«'  Manual  of  Geology 
page  452),  and  was  reftrred  to  in  1864  by  Sedgwîck  as  a  tt™ 

Philosophical  Magazine  (3),  VIII.  303,  367,  501.)     Eam^l 
moreover,  thoughhe  speaks  of  the  rodes  ^  an  intemeS 

a^apgi^  VHieks^in  18^.^^^^- 


ad<m«y^  4ndTided-fa7 -tjeagwîck  TFg 

AA 


/■M:,    '  M 


*^/ 


>-, 


Vr 


'418      CAMBRIAN   AND   SILURIAN   IN'   yORTH  AMERICA.       [XV. 


f^ 


V.  , 


Upper  Cambrian,  and  the  TJpper  Llandoveiy  or  M»y  Hill 
eandstone,  the  .base  of  his  Silurian.  ïhese  two  contiguous 
though  discordant  formations,  in  fact,  exhibit  a  mingling  of  the 
forms  of  the  second  and  third  faunas.  It  is,  however,  to  be 
notèd  that  the  Kiddle  Silurian  thus  defined  is  by  no  raeans 
the  équivalent  of  that  of  Mr.  Billings,  who  bas  giveh  the  name, 
not  to  beds  of  passage,  but  to  a  group  well  defined  both  strat- 
igraphically  and  paleontologically  équivalent  to  t^ie  Upper 
Llandovery  and  the  Wenlock  of  England,  or,  in  cther  words, 
to  the  fossiliferous  strata  between  the  top  or  the  Hudson  River 
shales  and  the  summit  of  the  Niagara  limestone  (including  the 
Guelph)  ;  thus  taking  the  lower  half  of  the  true  Silurian  or  the 
Upper  Silurian  of  Murchison.  That  the  group  of  strata  corii- 
prised  under  this  latter  name  (the  third  fauna  of  Banunde) 
really  includes  two  very  distinct  faunas,  was  long  sincev^shown 
by  Hall,  the  break  between  the  two  being  marked  in  New 
York  and  Ontario  by  the  interposition  of  the  non-fos^iliferous 
Onondaga  or  Salina  group.  This  séries  of  strata,  ih  some 
parts  1,000  feet  or  more  in  thickness,  consists  of  red  andtgreen 
magnesian  maris  with  rock-salt  and  gypsum,  overlaid  by  a  great 
raass  of  magnesian  liraestones,  tlie  whole  having/been  deposited 
in  a  vast  mediterranean  basin  which  extended  from  eastem 
.  New  York  to  Ohio.  The  WatétOime  beds,  with  their  peculiar 
fossils,  overlying  the  Salina  giroup,  consist  of  a  magnesian,  lime-' 
stone  lithologically  related  to  the  rocks  below.  and  represent 
the  first  invasion  of  life  into  *the  former  dead  sjea,  which  was 
foltowed  by/the  great  deposit  of  non-magneaian  limestones  of 
the  Lower  i  Helderberg  group.  Thèse,  which  attain  a  great 
thickness  to  the  eastward.  make  up,  with  the  Oriskany  sand- 
stoîie,  a  fourth  palseozoic  division,  the  équivalent  of  the  Ludlow 
of  England.  In  Gaspé  a  sandstone  formation,  without  any  ap- 
parent unconformity,  connecta  th&briâîlBHiy  wit^ihe 'great  mass 
pf  Devonian  sandstones  ;  but  in  New  York  and  in  Ontario  évi- 
dences of  ah  interruption  in  the  proceas  of  déposition  are  seen 
in  th«^  érosion  of  "ttie  Oriskany  prevéoue  to  the  déposition  of  tho 
Comiferous  limestone,  which  £here  forma  the  base  of  the  De- 
vftnian  or  the  Erie  division  of  the  New  Yoric  System,  extending 


Y 


-^  •*,  l'ï' 


f^STN      * 


■'[. 


L/" 


XV.]      CAMBRIAN  AND  SILUEIAN  m  NOBTH  AMERICA.      419 
up  to  the  base  of  the  Carboniferous,  for  which  Dawson  bas  sue 
gos  ed  tbe  more  appropriate  name  of  Eri^n.     (See  InrtiZ  Z 
aut  or  on  i^eaks  in  tbe  American  PaWic  Série    and  l^n 
on    he  lielations  of  tbe  Kiagara  andXower  Helde  bel  F^ 

S  rfsH  ^'"«^'^-/--tion  for  tbe  Advanccmint 
Ciuence,  18/3,  pages  118  and  321  ) 

[Tbe  name  of  Middle  Silurian,  applied  by  Billings  to  tbe 
gr^^P  bobhn,  tbe  Medina-^^iagara  fonna,  sbould  be'  elet  d 
for  tbe  reason  tbat  tbe  group  bdov.  ifba^  no  just  tHle  to  fh 
name  of  Lower  SUurian.  but  is  Upp,r  Camb^an    '     ^  two 
d  stxnct  faumvs  included  in  tbe  true  Silurian  rocks  mi-J  wlh 
gteu   propnoty  be  distinguisbed  as  Lower  and  UpperSilm-I 
•     Ibe  bistory  of  tbe  introduction  of  tbe  names  of  S 
n"L      r;  ^"*%^«^^^--  geology  now  dem^d^" 

^       alike  of  tbe  Brit.b  Camb^ian,  Silfr  ^Zr^^ 

\     refraine^ftom  ad«pting  this  nomenclature,  dxuvvn  from  aSn 

wbere  w,de  diversities  of  opinion  and  co^trove.iesTxLR 

o  tbe  value  and  significance.of  tbese  divisions,     ryelf  how^ 

^        nTf  V"  r '""*  ''  '"^  '^*  J«"™^y  *«  tb«  United  Sta  ^    " 

-.    p;*bshed  m  1845,  applied  tbe  terms  Lower  and  Upper  S  1^! 

^  wu  I  ""zT  ':  z  ^f  ^^^^^'  ^^^^^-  ^^*-'  -' «*6  i^e 

bZ      '  l"'""^  '°^  ^^'  '""^■"g»^  «^  Murchi^on  ifa  .bis 

to Tn.r'tl'  ?'*''  ''^  ^"'*^^  «^*^«'--l  -  his  n,turn- 
12  fiTr'-^f,!^''^'  '^  ''*^  ^^"^'  ^««-  ^«"'-  'l^  Fr.,  II.  iv, 
1^,  b46),  an  elaborate  comparison  between  tbe  European  r^Ùs^ 

HaT  a  rt  "'  f  "  ^'  ""^^^  ^°-"-'  -  -de  know^ 
R  ver'  ^'^  ^«^\r*r'  "P.to  th.  summif  of  tbe  Hud^n 
members,  mcluding  tbe  Lower  Helderberg  and  tl,e  overlyinf 

the  base  of  thé  Carboniferous  >  System,  being  call^d  mJnian 
This  essay  by  De  Vemeuil  w^  translated  andl^S  bv 
ftofessor  HaU,  and  ^lished  by  him  in.tfie  AmeriSCttoS 


?! 


'■'W 


420 


CAMBRIAN   AND  SILURIAN   IN   NORTH   AMERICA. 


[XV. 


wherein  he  objected  tô  the  application  of  tliis  disputed  nonien- 
clature  to  North  American  geology. 

Meanwhil'e  the  a«)logical  survey  of  Canada  was  in  progress 
under  Logan,  wHd  in  his  preliminary  Report  in  1842,  and  in 
his  subséquent  ones  for  1844, and  1846,  adopted  the  nomen- 
clature of  thp  New  York  system,  without  referenèe  to  European 
divisions.  Subsequently,  however,  the  usage  of  Lyell  and  De 
VemeuU  was  adopted  by  Logan,  who  in  his  Report  for  1848 
(page  57)  spoke  of  the  Clinton  group  as  the  base  of  the  "Upper 
Silurian  séries,"  while  in  that  for  1850  (page  34)  he  declared 
the  whole^of  a  great  séries  of  fbssiliferous  rocks  in  eastern 
Canada,  including  the  Trenton,  Utica,  ajid  Hudson  River  divis- 


ions, and  the 

to  be  superior 

In  the  Repo 

by  Mr.  Marra; 

the  Chazy  limestone| 


sandstones  of  Québec  (then  supposcfd 
to  "  belong  tp  the  Lower  Silurian.**' 
sage  64)  the  Lower  Silurian  Avas  made 
ie  not  only  the  Utica  and  Trenton,  but 
lé  Calciferous  sand-rock  and  the  Potsdam 
sandstone  of  the  New  York  System.  From  this  time  the 
Silurian  nomenclature,  as  applied  by  Lyell  and  De  Verneuil 
to  our  North  American  rocks,  was  employed  by  the  officers 
of  the  Canadian  geological  survey  (myself  among  the  others), 
and  was  subsequently  adopted  by  Professor  Dana  in  his  Manual 
of  GecJogy,  published  in  1863. 

The  geological  survey  of  Pennsylvania,  under  the  direction 
of  Professor  Henry  Darwin  Rogers,  was  begun,  like  that  ôf 
New  York,  in  1836,  and  the  palseozoic  rocks  of  the  State  Avere 
-4it  first  divided,  on  stratigraphical  and  litliological  grounds,  into 
groups,  which  were  designated,  in  ascending  order,  by  Roman 
numerals.  Subsequently,  as  he  informs  us  in  the  Préface  to 
his  final  Report  on  the  Geology  of  Pennsylvania,  Professor  H. 
D.  Rogers,  in  concert  with  his  brother,  Professor  William  B. 
Rogers,  then  directing  the  geological  survey  of  "\Firginia,  con- 
sidered  the  question  of  geological  nomenclature.  Rejecting, 
after  inature  délibération,  the  classification  and  nomenclature 
both  of  the  British  and  New  York  geological  sûrveys,  they 
proposed  a  new  one  for  the  whole  palœozoic  column  to  the  top 
of  the  coal-measnrea,  fcapded  on  the  conception  of  a  great 


/ 


V- 


■  /,'/4?' 


XV.]      CA^RIAN  AND  SILURIAN  IN  NORTH  AMERICA.     ,,421 

paLcozoic '^ay,  the  divisions  of  which  were  desicmated  bv 
naa,es  tak.n  from.  the  sun's  apparent  cou^JS^I 
hoavenB.  (Geology  of  Penn.,  I.  vi,  105.)  ào  far  as  li 
the  three  great  graups  which  we  hâve  r«.ognized  in  the)wl 
pala.ozoxc  rocks,  the  later  nan^es  of  lîogL,  and  his  CXl 
numenca  désignations,  with  their  equival'ents  in  the  NeJ 
York  System,  were  as  foUows  :  —     7  ""e  i^ew 

Pn»m/,(I).  This  includes  the  mass  of  2,500  feet  or  more 
of  shales  and  sandstones,  whichin  Peonsylvania  and  Vir^ir 
and  farthor  southward,  form  the  base  of  the  pala30zoic  ITZ 
and  rest  «pon  crystalline  schists.     The  Prill  division  w^ 

Potsdam  and  the  stiU  lower  members  of  the  Cambrian 

Auroral  (IL).  This  division  cousists  in  great  part'of  lime- 
etones,  of  en  magnesian,  and  corresponds  to  the  ■Calcifcror 
Levis,  and  Chazy  formations.  Its  thickness  in  PennsyTvTnTâ 
vanes  from  2,500  to  5,000  feet,  ahd.  ,^th  the  pr^ceding  divi" 
on,  it  mcludes  the  first  fauna  of  Kan^nde.  ïhe  représenta 
tives  of  the  Primai  and  Auroral  divisions  attain  a  ^eat  dt 
velopment  m  southwestem  Virginia  and  also  in  eastem  Tet 
nessee,  where  they  bave  been  studie*!  by  Safford 

Mattnal  (111  ).     In  this,  which  represents  the  second  fauna. 

w  th  thTr      ''/h  r  T  ''  '''  '^'^"*-  sVip,  togethe^ 
with  the  Utica  and  Hudson  Eiver  shales 

Shfr'ï  ^l^-^'     i^^''  ^^^°"  corresponds  to  the  Oneida  and 
Shawangunk  conglomérat»  and  the  Médina  sandstone 

i>urgent,  Scalent,  and  Pre-Meridicruil  (V.,  VI.).    In  thesa 

divisions  were  included  the   représentatives  of  the  Clinton 

Nmgara,  and  Lower  Helderberg  groupa  of  New  York,  making'  ^ 

with  division  IV.,  the  third  fauna  of  Barrande  *        ^' 

The  paraUelism  of  thèse  divisions  with  the  British  rocks 

was  most  clearly  and  corrèctly  pointed  eut  by  H.  D.  Boxers 

himself  m  an  explanation  pi^pared,  as  I  am  informed,  ^ith 

the  collaboh^tion  of  Professor  William  B.  Rogers,  and  pulv 

ished  m  1856,  with  a  geological  map  of  Nol  imerica^by 

1   f?!!^""'/"  ,*       "''""'^  !,?°^°^.  ^^^*^'  ^ohnson's  Physi- 


NortlT"  America  are~îlïero 


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:::v 


422      CAMBRIAN  AND  SILUEIAN  IN   NORTH  AMERICA.       [XV. 

divided  into  several  groupa,  of  which  the  first,  including  the 
Primai,  Aurpral,  and  Matinal,  ia  declared  ta  be  the  near  repré- 
sentative of  "  the  European  palaeozoic  deposits  from  the  first- 
fonned  fossiliferous  beds  to  the  close  of  the  Bala  group  f  that 
is  to  say,  the  proximate  représentatives  of  the  Cambrian  of 
Sedgwick."  A  second  groijp  embraces  the  Levant,  Surgent, 
Scalent,  and  Pre-Meridional,  Thèse  are  said  to  be  "  the  very 
near  représentatives  of  the  true  European  Silurian,  regarding 
this  séries  as  commencing  with  the  May  Hill  sandstone."  The 
Levant  division  is  further  declared  to  be  the  equiyalent  of  the 
sandstone  just  named  ;  while  the  Matinal  is  made  to  corre- 
spond to  the  Llandeilo,  Bala,,c^r  Upper  Cambrian  ;  the  Auroral 
with  the  Festiniog  or  Middle  Cambrian  ;  and  the  Primai  with 
the  Lingula  flags,  the  Obolus  sandstone  of  Russia,  and  the  Pri- 
mordial of  Bohemia. 

Tbe  reader  of  the  last  few  pages  of  this  history  will  hâve 
seen  how  the  Silurian  nomenclature  of  Murchison  and  the 
British  geological  surveyhas  been,  through  Lyell,  De  Vemeuil, 
and  the  Canadian  survey,  introduced  into  American  geology  in 
opposition  to  the  judgment,  and  against  the  protests  of  James 
Hall  and  the  Messrs.  Rogers,  the  founders  ôf  American  palœo- 
zoic  geology. 

Three  points  hâve,  I  think,  been  made  clear  in  the  first  and 
second  parts  of  this  sketch  :  first,  that  the  séries  to  which  the 
name  of  Cambrian  was  applied  by  Sedgwick  in  1835  (limite^ 
by  him  as  to  its  downward  extension,  in  1838)  was  coextensive 
with  the  rocks  characterized  by  the  first  and  second  faunas  ; 
second,  that  the  séries  to  which  the  name  of  Silurian  was 
given  by  Murchison  in  1836  included  the  second  and  third 
faunas,  but  that  the  roeka  of  the  second  fauna,  the  Upper 
Cambrian  of  Sedgwick,  were  only  included  in  the  Silurian 
System  of  Murchison  by  a  séries  of  errors  and  misconceptions 
in  stratigraphy  on  the  part  of  the  latter,  which  gave  him  no 
right  to  clajm  the  rocks  of  the  second  fauna  as  a  lower  mem- 
ber  of  his  Silurian  ;  third,  that  there  was  no  ground  whatever 
for  subsequently  annexing  to  the  Silurian  of  Murchison  the 


■i0k. 


XV.]  .  CAMBEIAN  AND  8ILURIAN  IN  NORTO  ilEBICA:     423 
W  and  Middle  Cambrian  divisions  of  Sedgwick    which 

gmphical  grounds,  and  which   were  subsequently  found     o 
contem  a  distinct  and  more  ancient  fauna  ^ 

The  name  of  SUurian  should   therefore   be   restricted    as 

of  the  firat  and  second  faunas.     ïo  the  former  of  thèse   th« 
W  and  m,ddle  divisions  of  the  Cambrian  (the  Ba^^^^^ 
Festmiog  groups   of    Sedgwick),   Phillips    IvpH    iV    i 

::^.;thircoirrh-  .^j^^^r  n^  -'  ^'^■ 

distinct  fron.  the  last  as  it  is  f^rtSt^iX^d^; ^1,^ 
deserves  a  not  less  distinctive  name  than  theL  tlo  T^r  "^ 
xloZr  Tt  ^PP^-^.C-b-n,  given  when  the  zo^lo^ 
iinportance  of  Lower  and  Middle  Cambrian  was  as  yetC^ 
known.  ^  not  sufficiently  chamcteristic,  and  the  Le  l^ 
^  sa,d  of  the  naïne  of  Lower  Silurian,  wrongly  impo^ed  upon 

of  its  NolT""  ''  *'"  ^"*  ^  «~"P  '-  ^^^^'  -d 
of  ts  North  American  eqliivalent,  the  Matinal  of  Eogerâ  - 

mcludmg  the  whole  of  «le  limestoues  of  the  Trenton' Jo'up 

with  the  succeedmg  Utica  and  Hudson  River  shales,-mig}^ 

Cambls-Î  ""'^f"  ""'  '  "^"  ^'^^  '^'"^  —     That 
Cambro-Sdunan,  at  one  time  proposed  by  Sedgwick  himself 

and  adopted  by  Phillips  and  by  Jukes,  w^  subsVntlyTth: 

drawn  by  him,  when  investigations  made  it  clear  that  this 

gwup  had  been  wrongly  united  with  the  Silurian  by  Murchi- 

cTnl^f.K       ''"'^"'  7^^"^'  °'°'^°^«''  ^«^"^  '*«  composition.     " 
Neitherof  thèse  objections  can  be  ui^ed  against  the  simUarly 
constnicte»  term  of  SUuro-Cambrian,  which  moreover.  haaThe 


■''is&^itf'ïft,*^*''*-^  *Li. 


>i  I  «yi-i"  f^V  P 


A  "■ 


424     CAMBBIAN  AND  SILUÇIAN  IN  NORTH  AMERICA.      [XV. 

ing  the  groûp  both  with  the  tnie  Silurian,  to  which  it  has 
very  generally  been  united,  and  with  the  Cambrian,  of  which, 
from  the  first,  it  has  formed  a  part.     I  therefore  venture  to 
Buggest  the  naîne  of  Siluro-Cambrian,  as  a  convenient  syno- 
nyme for  the  ITpper  Cambrian  of  Sedgwick  (the  Lower  Silu- 
,  rian  of  Murchison),  corresponding  to  the  second  fauna;  reaerv- 
ing,  at  the  same  time,  the  name  of  Cambrian  for  the  rocks  of 
the  first  faunâ,  —  the  Lower  and  Middle  Cambrian  of  Sedg- 
wick, —  and  restricting,  with  him,  the  name  of  Silurian  to  the 
rocks  of  the  third  fauna,  —  the  Upper  Silurian  of  Murchison.* 
The  late  Professer  Jukes,  it  may  be  hère  mentioned,  in  his 
Manual  of  Greology,  publishe^  in  1857,  still  retained  for  the 
Bala  group  the  name  of  Cambro-Silurian  (which  had  been 
withdrawn  by  Sedgwick  in  1854),  and  reserved  the  name  of 
the  "  true  Sihirian  period  "  for  the  Upper  Silurian  of  Murchi 
son.     In  his  récent  and  much-improved  édition  of  this  excel- 
lent Manual  (1872),  Professer  Giekie,  the  director  of   th© 
geological  survey  of  Scotland,  has  substitwted  the  nomencla- 
ture of  Murchison  ;  with  the  important  exception,  however, 
that  he  follows  Hicks  and  Salter  in  separating  the  Menevlan 
from  the  Lingula  flags,  and  uniting  it  with  the  underlying 
Harlech  rocks  (as  has  been  done  in  the  table  on  page  386), 
giving  to  the  two  the  name  of  Cambrian  (foc.  dt.,  pages  526  - 
629),  and  thus,  on  good  paleontological  grounds,  extendipe 
this  name  above  the  horizon  admitted  ty  Murchison.     Bar- 
rande,  on  the  contrary,  in  his  récent  essay  on  trilobites  (1871,' 
page  250),  makes  the  Silurian  to  include  not  only  the  Lingula 
flags  proper  (Maentwrog,  Festiniog,  and  Dolgelly),  but  the 
Menevian,  and  even  a  great  part  of  the  Harlech  rocks  them- 

•  Dr.  Dawgon,  in  his  address  as  président  of  the  Nstural  Hibtory  Society 
of  Montréal,  in  May,  1872,  has  taken  the  occasion  of  the  publication  in  the 
Ganadian  Naturalist  of  the  first  and  second  parts  of  this  history,  to  review 
the  subject  hère  discussed.  Recognizing  the  necessity  of  a  reform  in  the 
nomenclature  of  the'  palsBozeio  rocks  in  conformity  with  the  views  of  Sedg- 
wick, he  would  restrict  to  the  rocks  of  the  thini  fauna  the  name  of  Silurian, 
making  it  a  division  équivalent  to  Devonian  ;  and  while  reeerving,  with  Lyell, 
Phillips,  and  .others,  the  name  of  Cambrian  for  the  flrst  fauna  only,  agrées 
with  me  in  the  propriety  of  adopting  the  name  of  SilurorCambrian  for  the 
Mcond  fann«. 


-/ 


XV.J 


CAMBEIAN  AND  SILUEIAN  m  NOETH  AMEEICA. 


425 


'    ^y  apply  to  Siluria,  as  Sed^^tHl  7'^^^"  '  "^"^  ^« 
.    quotation  once  used  bv  ConvlT         ^  ''^'^^-  '^°"''  '^^  ^pt 

î«orfc^«?«c  t;u/e,.»    geolojiats,  which  it  replaces  :  «  Est  Jupiter 
tribute  to  theveri>IeXicrwtT;d^'^^^^^^  ^^^"^ 

tude  of  his  earlv  stmtWni,,-    i  ^  !  *'°°^™  *^«  «xacti- 

tl^at  in  the  Can^rse^ea^^^l^^^^^^  ^^  «^--°^ 

génération  since    he  laiVl  2'  /     ^^  ^"*  «^^^  t^an' a 

pateozoic  geology  '  '^  '^  '"^  ^undation,  the  bases  of 

•Sea  the  Préface  tothiapaper  for  a  noUceof  his  death.        ' 


'/iSUfslU^^M.^' 


^AiAr'^''.yt,^ifjt  h, -i  f'ifî     ,*, 


4 


"W^^ 


THEORY  OF  CHHMICAL  CHANGES  AND 
^EQUIVAÇENT  VOLUMES. 

(1863.) 

The  foUowlng  paper  was  publlshed  under  the  tttle  of  Considérations  on  thc  Theory 
of  Chemical  Changes,  etc.,  in  uie  American  Joumi^f  Science  for  March,  1853.  It 
8oon  after  ap})eared  ih  the  Loiuon,  Edtnburgh,  and  Dublin  Philosophical  Magazine  (4), 
V.  520,  and  ftaa  translated  into  German  and  appearedin  the  Chemischea  Centralblatt  of 
tieipsic  iivthe  saine  year  (page  849).  In  the  papera  whicb  follow,  on  The  Composition 
and  Equivalent  Volume  of  Minerai  Speclesî  en  Solution  and  the  Chemiiial  Process,  on 
TheiObJects  and  Method  of  Mineralogy,  as  well  as  in  that  on  The  Tbeory  of  Types  in 
Chemistry,  t  hâve  attempj|»d  to  develop  some  of  the  notions  contained  in  this  flrst 
essay,  which,  I  still  thinAc,  must  form  the  basis  of  a  rational  theoiy  ^  chemistry 
and  a  true  mineralogical  elassUlcatloii. 

/  **■-''  "  ■'        ' 

In  the  proposed  inquiry  we  commence  hf  distinguishing  be- 
tween  the  phencftiiena  which  belong  to  the  domain  of  physics 
and  those  which  make  up  the  chemical  history  of  matter.  We 
conceive  of  matter  as  iiifliienced  by  two  forces,  one  oï  which 
produces  condensation,  attraction,  and  unity,  and  the  other  ex- 
pansion, répulsion,  and  plurality.  Weight,  as  the  resiilt  of 
attraction,  ia  a  universal  property  of  matter.  Besides  this,  we 
hâve  its  varions  conditions  of  consistence,  ehape,  and  volume, 
with  the  relation  of  the  latter  to  weight,  constituting  spécifie 
gravity,  md  the  relations  of  beat,  light,  electricity,  and  magnetr 
isin.  A/  description  of  thèse  qualities  and  relations  consti- 
tutes  the  physical  historj'  of  matter,  and  the  group  of  characters 
which /serve  to  distinguish  one  species  from  another  may  be 
designated  the  ap](ffi^nt  or  spécifie  form  of  a  species,  as  distin- 
guished  from  its  essentiel  form. 

le  fortes  above  mentioned  modify  physically  the  spécifie 
charters  of  matter,  but  they  bave  besides  important  relations 


■'*  -A 


-è 


\ 


,      XVI.J  ON  THE  THEORY  OF  CHEMICAL  CHANGES.  427 

Wp^ity  of  such    omoLn      P^^"''"^^^  «^  bodies.     I„  the 

«anic  bodies  hav;.  .       ,,      ^°        '"«™°  "'''^  »'''"»  i^or- 

aent  of  individuation  ,„  I        .V^^"'^"™  «  «  commenoe- 
-d  «imairôrZ'dttroTe^tf    \^  """"  "' "'"'^    ' 

pi.™ui»i.\c!::rtna;„rd:°irr  *ir°^ 

condeiuatioa  onlr  or,.  ^  •      ■  '  "  "«'««morphoeis  by 

»l«omc  difl^S^  "  *°  T      "  ''<>"°8™«»»«,  and  without 
it  It  tût!,'^""'^  "*  '^'»  '=  »  -"""J  «f  'k-.  changea  • 


,  «m  ïaese,  bemg  legarded  as  primary  or  origi- 


'é 


'■■r''r>.  ■:':■''  -v-yv'"'^'- 


G- 


428 


ON  THE  THEORY  OF  CHEMICAL  C&ANGES.    [XVI. 


I 


nal  specîes,  are  called  chemical  éléments.  Theae  two  prqcesses 
continually  altemate  with  each  othet,  and  a  speciea  produced 
by  the  firet  may  yield,  by  division,  siiecies  un^ike  ita  parents. 
From  this  succession  résulta  double  décomposition  or  équivalent 
substitution,  which  always  involves  a  union  foUowed  by  divis- 
ion, although  under  the  ordinary  conditiions  the  process  cannot 
be  arrested  at  the  intermediate  stage. 

The  prevalence  of  certain  modes  of  division  in  related  species 
bas  given  rise  to  the  différent  hypothèses  of  copulates  and  radi- 
des,  which  bave  been  made  the  ground  pf  Systems  of  classifica- 
tion ;  but  thèse  hypothèses  are  based  on|  the  notion  of  dualism, 
which  bas  no  other  foundation  than  the  observed  order  of  gén- 
ération, and  they  can  bave  no  place  in  altheory  of  the  science. 
A  body  may  divide  into  two  or  more  ne^  species,  yet  it  is  evi- 


îtom  the  fact  that  a 
wbose  pre-existence  is 


dent  that  thèse  did  not  pre-exist  in  it, 
différent  division  may  yield  other  species 
incompatible  with  the  last;  nor  can  thei  pre-existence  of  any 
species  but  those  which  we  bave  called  primary  be  admitted 
as  possible.  Apart  from  thèse  considérations,  it  is  to  be  re- 
marked  that  our  science  bas  to  do  only  with  phenomena,  and 
no  hypothesis  as  to  the  noumenon  or  substance  of  a  species 
under  examination,  based  upoâ  its  phenomena,  or  those  of  its 
derived  species,  can  ever  be  a  subject  of  science,  for  it  trans- 
cends  ail  sensible  knowledge. 

For  thèse  reasons,  it  is  confeeived  that  the  notion  of  pre-exist- 
ing  éléments  or  groups  of  éléments  should  find  no  place  in  the 
theory  of  chemistry. ,  Of  the  relation  which  subsists  between  the 
bigher  species  and  those  derived  from  them,  we  can  only  assert 
the  possibility,  and,  under  proper  conditions,  the  certainty  of 
producing  the  one  from  the  other.  Ulti^te  chemical  analyses, 
ànd  thé  formulas  deduced  from  theml  serve  to  show  what 
changes  are  possible  in  any  body,  or  lo  what  new  species  it 
may  give  lise  by  its  changes. 

Chemical  union  is  interpénétration,  as  Kant  has  taught,  and 
not  juxtaposition,  as  conceived  by  Ithe  atomistic  chemists. 
When  bodies  unité,  their  bulks,  like  itbeir  spécifie  characters, 
are  loat  in  that^of  the  new  Bpeciea.     Cases  and  vapors  unité  in 


■/ 


^VL,  ON  THE  THEORY  OF  CHEMICAL  CHANGER  429 

the  proportion  of  one  voluifae  of  «o.k 

one  ^oluxne.  so  t,.t  J  s^  ^^t;  TZ  :T  "^'^"^ 
the  tnm  of  those  of  its  tJZ^     ït  "  "P"""*  ■» 

l«ot  weighl»  andr.T  ,  •    T  f"**  ™P™  '"  ">*  eqma- 
cf  the  !,ti^'„f X:  '"r!'^.-»»''-»'»  -  th.e 

«t«n«,ttdMen,„avolum«dt  ..  "^'""'  *'»8'"»  »' tho 
theeo  „„».  lave  .imirvl^L  »  tt,"™  """""'  "' "'"""• 
equiviUoncy  of  volumes     Zl    ^        ""^  "'  ■"'  '"  "" 

deânite  prooortL.  h!  '■Jf'hfe»  to  eiplam  the  law  of 

apeeie,  TC^'r^Tj'' -"^  """"^-    ^'-'-' 
Solution  U  ehoniM  ul;  ^^      /'"T   '^■'  '^'^"'■ 

-de„s.«o.;;ir:cu'"rt.t''L''^  "*^ir 

«"y  change  of  Volume        "™"'°««  "e  not  «ccompanied  by 
lent  of  wateZrf  rf  hvdl      '^'r™'"*  *"  *"  *»  "I»i'a- 

V  one  voi^^^h^'^s:";:'^'  t°s^f  r  '-"r-"^ 

«f  ohlorine,  hydCn  ofr^ltri'i?  ""',  ™'""" 
to  be  takm  for  tho  Muival^^^;  f  .  '""  ™'™'»  ™ 
»ith  an  équivalent  Tl«  S"'  ""*  "  '^''°™  H,0„ 

«le  81>ecier«hf»nl     >,■  '  '»"?•»"'''»«  t^  HCI,  and  to  vota^ 

TOI JTTf  «l^^iTm'ÎS:  ''t"""  ""  "'P'°"'"«'  »y  f»«  . 

.   H  irrt iv\fmo»ifc      jfcH  — --?- - — . •-  - 


k'àtiA^ 


:i|ïk.t- 


_.>'  ^^  i;^  ■ 


430 


ON  THE  THEOEY  0?  CHEMICAL  CHANGES. 


[XVL 


apparent  exceptions  to  the  gênerai  law  of  condensation  and 
equivalency  of  volumes.  When  four  volumes  of  chlorine  unité 
with  four  of  olefi(^nt  gas,  or  of  naphthaline,  the  product  is  con- 
densed  into  four  volumes  ;  but  if  the  chlorine  unité  with  the 
same  volume  of  hydrogen  gas,  there  is  no  condensation,  and 
eight  volupies  or  two  équivalents  of  hydrochloric  gas  are  pro- 
duced.  This,  however,  is  explained  when  we  find  that  four 
volumes  of  the  chloro-hydrocarbon,  MH,Cl8,  may  break  up 
into  four  of  a  new  species  MCI,  and  four  of  HCl  ;  a  change 
which  with  the  chlorido  of  olefiant  gas  is  efifected  by  the  aid  of 
hydrate  of  potash,  and  with  the  chloride  of  naphthaline  takes 
place  spontaneously  at  an  «levated  température.  In  the  pro- 
duction of  hydrochloric  gas  from  chlorine  and  hydrogen,  "union  * 
takes  place  foUowed  by  immédiate  expansion  without  spécifie 
différence,  or  metamorphosis,  while  in  the  production  of  this  "^ 
acid  with  the  hydrocarbons  we  observe  the  intermediate  stage. 
If  an  équivalent  of  four  volumes  of  hydrochloric  gas  were  to 
undergo  a  change  like  the  chloride  of  naphthaline,  and  yield  four 
volumes  of  chlorine  and  four  of  hydrogen,  thèse  species  would 
appear  with  one  half  their  observed  densities  ;  hence  we  con- 
clude  that  they  are  actually  condensed  to  one  half  their  theo- 
retical  volumes,  so  that  four  volumes  of  hydrogen  gas  represont 
not  H,  but  Hj.  In  the  same  way,  if  we  conceive  the  quantity 
of  oxygen  produced  from  four  volumes  of  water-vapor  to  repre- 
sent  two  équivalents,  it  should  equal  eight  volumes  instead  of 
two,  so  that  it  is  condensed  to  ofae  fourth,  precisely  as  the  vapor 
of  sulphur  is  condensed  to  one  twplfth  of  its  theoretical  volume. 
As  there  are  no  bodies  which  are  known  to  yiéld  for  four  vol- 
umes a  less  quantity  than  two  volumes  of  oxygen,  this  may  be 
taken  to  represent  its  équivalent,  and  the  condensation  of  the 
theoretical  volume  is,  like  that  of  hydrogen  and  chlorine,  one 
half.  Water  with  an  équivalent  of  four  volumes  is  then  H,0, 
and  its  weight  2  -|-  16  =  18  ;  the  same  formula  is  deduced  by 
those  chemists  who  take  two  volumes  for  the  équivalent,  and, 
dividing"  the  weight  of  hydrogen^  write  water  H,0,  with  an 
eiquivalènt  weight  of  9.  The  condensation  of  thèse  éléments 
i^  tt^kt  mi)de  of  meramorphosis  which  constitutes  polymerism, 


v^Je^^,^,  .: 


jii*  $^1 


Zi-'i^^v 


■  ■*.ASa«ftr«kl.!}i'. 


^*v,^  4j 


XVI.]  ON  THE  THEORY  OF  CHEMICAL  CHANGES.  431 

a^l^evidently  offers  no  exception  to  the  law  of  équivalent  vol- 
or  !t\^J  °^  ^T""^'  *''"*  ^^^  """^^«^  «f  «toms  of  hydroKen 
or  oT  hydrogen,  chlorine,  nitrogen,  metala  etc    in  Iv  f     ^  î' 

corresponding  to  four  volumes  of  Cr  is'^V^T^  ^""!^.* 
subject  to  the  same  conditions  as  hvdrotren  an,!  .1 1  T 

It  is  lo  be  temarked  that  whUe  the,ooelfi«„t,  of  H  Cl  or 

corresponding  to  the  cyanides  C  Mm  -  «.vr  ^  ^^''^^  ^«^^' 
oyanogen.    ThU  «laeion  h..  tap^^Lt  l^iV  1  ^S 

to  Jmiary.  IBM,  j.  yj],      ^"»»'^.  PM»-,^  ftSi;  ai tt» il»». Jain..! 


r^ 


N 


!,.„.,    - 


.^.,.     ' 


b^^ii0^i',t,pd^i 


•  '  ï 


♦*' 


432 


ON  THE,  THEORT  OF  CHEMICAL  CHANGEa 


[XVL 


\. 


if  now  the  relation  betiveen  C  and  O  be  what  We  bave^  Bup- 
posed,  it  may  be  expected  that  minerai  species  will  exbibit  the  - 
game  relations  as  those  of  the  carbon  séries,  and  the  principle 
of  homology  be  greetljr  extended  i^  its  application.  Such  is 
really  the  case,  and  the  history  of  minerai  species  afifords  many 
instances  ^of  isomorphous  silicates  wbose  formulas'''difiFer  by 
■  n  OjMfc  as  the  tourmalines,  and  the  silicates  of  alumina  and 
magitesia,  whilç  the  latter,  with  many  zeolites,  exhibit  a  similajr 
différence  of  n  0,H,.  The  relation  is  in  fact  that  which  exista 
betweeù  neutral^'and.surbaâic  or  hydrated  salts. 

Laurent  bas  asserted  that  salts  of  the  sâmè  base,  Vith  hoinol- 
•     ogous  acids  of  the  type  (,C,H,)nO,,  may  be  isomorphous  whçn 

-  they  differ  by  OjHji,  and*  bas  pointed  out,  berides,  several  ihr 
stances  of  what  lie  bas  called  hemimorphism  in  species  thirà^ 
related,  as  well  as  in  çthèrs  differing  by  n  Clj;     The  observations  \ 
of  Pasteur  and  Nicklès  bave  greatly  extended  the  application  of 

„^     thèse  cases,  which  assume  a  new  importance  in' connection  with 

-  the  viéws  hère  brought  forward,  and  demand  further  study.* 

But  to  retum  :  we  bave  seen  that  in  gases  and  Vapors*  the 
^pccific  gravity  of  a  species  enables  us  to  fix  its  équivalent, 
which  is  oftén  a  multiple,  by  some  whole  number,  of  that  cal-, 
culated  from  ..the  results  of  ultimate  analysis.  As  the  equiva- 
-  lents  of  non-volatile  species  are  generally  assumed  to  be  those 
quantities  which  sustain  the  "simplest  ratio  t<^  cèttain  volatile 
ones,  the  real  équivalent  weight  corresponding^  tp  four  volumes 
of  vapor,  and  consequently  the  theoretical  vapowfciisîty  of  such 
species,  is  liable  to  a  degree  of  the  same  uncertainty  as  those 
deduced  from  ultimate  analysis.  Having,  Hpwever,  determined 
the  true  équivalent  of  a  species  froln  the  dénsity  of  its  vapor, 
the  inquiry  arises  whether-a  defihite  and  constant  relation  may  - 
not  be  discovered  betweeu  its  vapor-density  and  the  spécifie 
gravity  of  -a  species  in  the  -éolid  state.  Such  a  relation  beitig 
established,  and  the  value  of  the  condensation  in  passing  from 
'    a  gaseous  to  a  solid  statè  being  k'nown,  the  équivalents  of  ^ 

*  See  Laurent,  Comptes  Rendus  dl^rAcad.,  Tom.  XXVT.  p.  353  ;  and  p.  257 
of  Laurent  and  Gerhardt's  tiomptes  AenduR  des  Travaux  de  Chhnie  for  1848; 
also  Paatenr^^  ibid.,  p.  165  ;  and  Nicklès,  ibtd.  for  18^,  p.  847.  - 


-.at  .1,    t.-'  if- 


'  ■*"■  ^¥;'- 


jM*f  'ûfeL 


!<a.  .fit'-p^^-i 


•■■  t  '. 


.^%. 


XVI.] 


ON   EQUIVALENT  VOLUMEa 


.433 


eyidenl  m  «.me  allied  ànd  tomomWus  ■■Le.     H  K 
Joule,  and,  more  recentlv  Dan»     ^K^;,         il     .^'^y'»*"^»  ««a 

it     The  reason  nf  fK.o  f Cémenta,  or  some  miiftiple  of 

quanti.™  «MaiL  inXidlnf  tkf  2."'     f '.° -'  "^i'»''  "«•  • 
the  nûmber  of  éléments   tU^  .     -,  ^  ®  *^*^^^«  V 

lents  va,y  with  the  .peciSc  gTit^!  *"  ""«',«1°''^ 

.nd't^s'S  ti^irt^"''^^  r  ■"*  •"  ■■•«™ 


v^ 


BB 


^ijwWi'i»**©-  -*«  E-  -^ 


I^' 


-^ 


434 


ON  EQUIVALENT  VOLUMES. 


[XVI. 


denaity  was  the  mean  oi  thosë  of  îts  constituents  ;  thus  imply- 
ing  that  this  tinion,  unlike  that  observed  iii  gases,  is  juxtapo- 
Bifion,  and  not  interpénétration.  Thia  system  of  formulas  bas 
iptroduced  such  difiiculties  into  the  study  of  the  relations  be- 
fore  us,  that  we  find  Mr.  Dana  led  to  the  conclusion  that  "  the 
elemental  molécules  are  not  combined  together  or  united  with 
one  auother,  in  a  compound,  but  that  un(^r  their  mutual  influ- 
ence each  is  changed  alike,  and  becomes  a  mean  resuit  of  the 
molecular  forces  in  action."  * 

The  solution  of  thèse  diiflculties  is  very  simple,  and  will 
hâve  beeu  inferred  from  the  plan  of  our  inquiry.  It  is  found 
in  the  principle  that  ail  sp«cies  crystiallizing  in  the  same  shape 
hâve  the  same  équivalent  volume  ;  so  that  their  équivalent 
weights,  as  in  the  case  of  vapors,  are  directly  as  their  densities, 
and  the  équivalents  ôf  minerai  species  are  as  much  more  ele- 
vated  than  those  of  the  carbon  séries,  as  their  spécifie  gravities 
are  higher.  The  rhombohedral  carbonates  must  be  represented 
as  salts  having  from  twelve  to  eighteen  équivalents  of  base, 
replaceable  so  as  to  give  rise  to  a  great  number  of  species,  and 
the  variations  in  the  volume  of  différent  carbonates,  as  observed 
by  Kopp,  indicate  the  existence  of  several  homologous  gênera, 
which  are  isomorphous. 

The  researches  of  Playfair  and  Joule  hâve  léd  them  to  the 
conclusion  that  in  some  hydrated  salts  which  crystallize  with 
twenty  and  twenty-four  équivalents  of  water,  as  the  carbonate, 
the  iriphosphates  and  triarseniates  of  soda,  the  calculated  vol- 
ume coincides  with  that  obtained  by  multiplying  the  volume 
of  ice  (9.8  for  HO  with  an  équivalent  weight  of  9)  by  the 
number  of  équivalents  of  water.  This  resuit  is  thus  explained  ; 
water  in  thèse  salts  is  in  the  same  state  of  condensation  as  in 
ice,  and '24  HO  thus  condensed  would  occupy  the  volume  of 
24  X-S^8\;=235,  which  is  identical  with  that  of  the  rhombic 
phosphate,  as  20  X  9.8  =  198  is  with  that  of  the  carbonate 
of  soda,  C,Na,0«,2ÔM0.  Alum,  crystallizing  with  24  HO, 
has  a  voluitae  which  is  greater  than  that  of  phosphate  of  soda, 
and,  according  to  Flayfair  and  Joule,  equals  that  of  the  water 
'—-.-    -— *^Aiawrio»a  Jotaa«lo^8o^«ao>(3),  VoL  IX.p.  846.     


.1 


XVI.] 


/^ 


ON  EQUIVALENT  VOLUMES. 


435 


crystallizine  in  tli»  ^^^       x  •  -î'<>:235;  and24HO 

HO,  11.25  insld  0^9  8^"^'  ^"'^  °'  '"^-^  '«'  «^ving  for 

the  volume  varij  ^^th  te  W^^^^^^  *"^  "^^"^  «°^' 
and  diminishes  rThT         '^"«^^«^edron  becomes  obtuse 

the  length  of  the  verti^  fj    w      "  '°^  ^^'^^'^^  «y«t«°^. 
ishes  as  the  bTofThriZ  ^'"'  "°"^'  *^«  "^^««"^  ^^-i"- 

tives  of  the  trL^ÎZs7r^lr\\'^''''''''^  ^  ^  ^--' 
con^pond  in  vdume  t        '  "'^'^  '^'^  ^"^  ^  ^«'^d  to 

words,  whatls  the  ^uTof  th«T  7  ""'"'  '"^^^'  °"'  ^  «^^er 
in  the  change  from^e  ^^1  condensation  which  takes  place 
degree  of  Joer"  ^^^  ^«  ^""^^^^  >  and  hL  a 
crystallized  species  Lv^ft  î.  '  """""  *^"  équivalent  of  a 
'  f-n.  those  Z^JU^^l  ^^^'^  «^  that  deduced 

destruction  of  ite  crystallTindÏ^Sult  "ïh""''  T^*^  *'^ 
mula  deducible  for  alum  is  iTiT^L  1^^  "'"^P^^*  ^^^ 
SiKal,0,.,  12H,0    Td  bl       ^"  ^^*^'  ^  ^^^  ^^HO.  or 

volume  of  abo^t  270     lÏL^^"  ^^**^  °^  ^^^^  «^ves  a 
C..H.,0,..  if  we  ^^  ^f^'g^P^n&iT  is  not  less  than 

porr.po.;iw:3e:uiiro^rr  a^^^^^^  -^^ - 

m  the  same  way  are  represented  Cq'   eÙ  '^'J^^y^^'^^ 
«onsfor  believing  that  the  equivale'n^^'oVtL  ^e^i:  Z 


.  ^«""«al  Society,  Q„arteriy  Jonml,  I  pa«  130 


«^^^iSkï'".»'  '-*■  .e^%>^  i-î,'^Vis^.^«al .  ^.^  .V  *i-^^ 


x 


\ 


43e 


ON  EQUIVALENT  VOLUMES. 


[XVI. 


crystalline  state  correspond  to  some  multi]|ile  of  the  above 
formulas,  a  question  to  be  decided  by  an  examination  of  the 
crystallization  and  spécifie  gravity  of  species  whose  équivalents 
are  admitted  to  be  higluer. 

Favre  and  Silbermann,  from  their  res^rches  upon  the  heat 
evolved  in  fusion  and  solution,  hâve  bâen  led  to  conclude  : 
first,  that  crystallized  salts  are  polymeric  of  thèse  same  salts  in 
solution,  that  is,  they  are  represented  by  formulas  which  are 
multiples  of  those  deduced  from  analysis  ;  secondly,  that  double 
salts  and  acid  salts  do  not  exist  in  solution,  being  produced 
only  during  crystallization  ;  and,  thirdly,  that  water,  in  crystal- 
lixing,  changes  from  HO  to'nHO,  n  being  some  whole  num^ 
ber.*  Thèse  conclusions  are  seen  to  be  in  accordance  with 
those  deduced  from  a  considération  of  the  relations  of  density 
^nd  équivalent  volume.  A  polymerisrii  is  évident  in  such 
salts  as  sulphate  of  potash  and  cyanide  of  potassium  when  their 
spécifie  gravities  are  compared  with  those  of  alum  and  the 
ferrocyanide. 

In  the  liquid  state,  the  relation  between  spécifie  gravity  and 
équivalent  is  not  so  apparent  as  in  solid  species.  The  con- 
densation often  varies  greatly,  even  in  allied  and  homologous 
species,  but  still  exhibits  a  relation  of  volumes.  The  alcohols 
CjH^Oj,  C^HjO,,  CioHi,0,,  and  CuHigOj  hâve  very  nearly  the 
same  spécifie  gravity,  so  that  the  condensation  is  inversely  as 
their  vapor-equivalents.  The  densities  of  wine-alcohol,  aeetic 
acid,  and  aldéhyde  in  the  liquid  state,  vary  as  their  équivalents, 
80  that  the  calculated  volumes  are  57.5,  65.5,  and  55.  Formic 
and  Valérie  acids  show  §f  similar  relation  in  density  to  their 
respective  alcohols,  their  calculated  volumes  being  to  thèse  as 
37.3  :  39,  and  108  :  106.7.  If  to  thèse  we  add  butyric  acid, 
whieh  gives  a  volume  of  90,  and  the  .density  of  whose  alcohol 
bas  not  yet  been  determined,  the  liquid  volumes  for  the  four 
acids,  CjHjO^,  C4HA,  CgHgO^,  and  CioH,o04,  are  37.3,  65.5, 
90,  and  108.  Thèse  numbers  approximate  to  multiples  of  the 
liquid  volume  of  water  H,Oi,  which  is  18  ;  or  taking  this  as 
unity,  are  very  nearly  as  2,  3,  6,  and  6.    The  interval  between 


-*^  Ooiftpte*  a^cte^^Xn.  828-  IM»,  ma  lOLUl.  W»->*Hr 


.    "'      /        ■  'Jià 


y. 


ON  EQUIVALENT  VOLUMES. 


XVI.1  .., „ 

437 

o^c  gravity  ai  thei,  boiling-poinl  ahouMTrtï^  ulZ 
la  .  succ^Kiing  p.p«.  [XVII.  „f  the  présent  ïoh3lri. 


':s\ 


XVII. 

THE  CONSTITUTION  AND  EQUIVALENT 
VOLUME  OF  MINERAL  SPECIES. 

(1853-1863.) 

t 
A  paper  with  the  above  title,  of  which  the  introduction  and  an  analygls  are  given 
below,  appeared  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science  for  Septeraber,  1858.  In  the 
Proceedings  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  for  1854, 
the  same  sul^ect  is  continued  in  an  essay  entitled  Illustrationi  of  Chemical  Homol- 
ogy.  From  the  author's  abstract  of  thls,  which  apiteared  in  the  American  Journal 
of  Science  for  September,  1854,  some  eztracts  are  hère  given,  in  which  will  he  found 
hix  views  on  the  constitution  of  the  feldspars,  siuce  adopted  by  TschermÂk,  and  gen- 
erally  ascribed  to  him.  Further  illustrations'  are  given  by  extracts  fh}m  ai  later  paper 
by  the  author  in  the  Compte  Rendu  of  the  French  Acadeniy  of  Sciences  for  June  29, 
1803,  on  saussurite  and  related  minerais.  Some  gênerai  conclusions  in  àccordance 
with  the  views  hère  expressed  will  be  found  ht  Paper  XIX.  of  the  présent  Volume. 

In  a  récent  paper  [XVI.  of  the  présent  volume]  we  endeav- 
ored  to  lay  down  some  principles  which  may  serve  as  the  basis 
of  a  Sound  theory  of  chemistry.  Having  expkiined  the  nature 
of  chemical  changes,  and'  the  laws  of  combination,  we  showed 
that  the  volumes  of  the  uniting  species  are  always  merged  in 
that  of  the  new  one,  se  that  the  atomic  theory,  as  applied  by 
Dalton,  which  makes  combination  consist  in  juxtaposition,  is 
untenable.  It  was  further  asserted  that  the  simple  relations 
of  volumes  which  Gay  Lussac  pointed  out  in  the  chemical 
changes  of  gases  apply  to  ail  liquid  and  solid  species,  thus 
leading  the  way  to  a  correct  understanding  of  the  équivalent 
volumes  of  the  latter.  While  chemists  hâve  not  hesitated  to 
assign  high  équivalents  to  bodies  of  the  carbon  séries,  they 
hâve  been  inclined  to  make  the  équivalent  weights  of  denser 
minerai  species  correspond  to  formulas  representing  the  simplest 
possible  ratios.  "We  endeavored,  from  a  considération  of  the 
theory  of  équivalent  volumes,  to  point  out  the  errora  to  which 


Sn-JA, 


•V. 


■A 


XVII]  CONSTITBTIO»  ATO  TOLDMI  OF  MINERAL  SPECIE3.  439 

^  expressmg  any  pre^xisting  ^ktions  in  the  constitution  !? 

h.  Tls^fLl.  ™'  arrangements  „f  lh«e  in  our  formu- 
hL  hian 7  ,  ""''«"'PP™-"  "■»  "umerical  relations  which 
^i^  '"""'  '°  ^'™  '"«  tamfomations  „f  the  hiB^ 

u^i/iritri';^^^^ 

-e  as  the  eo.„on  Iffe^nd  tîl'^^  ^1""^  ^  "" 

.     ,,      ,  *,  2ô,  36...n6, 

as  in  the  hydrocarbons  C.H..  C.H    P  w    „*        Ti-  x^     « 

•.ennis„nlikethec„n.n,onSe^f:Sf:;ri,  "  '"^  *"' 
of  which  the  amnionias,  NH„  NH,  +  CH*  NH  4-  op  TT     . 

Shir.  n.i:i°:;^i:  -^^  ------ 

the«,luor7ca°!S:f^sn?phr'«n'd  "  '"  '"\*°""-  '^- 

-^«  develop.,  t.«  whoie  question  of  t^îv^^itll^^j^»"'' 


i,*K  ,'(.'('•;, 


!^#â&isttjte,«.;.v,,.  >•'        .1        ^!#t.-.  .à 


^llLâï;*^ 


■•  \ 


440  CONSTITUTION  AND  VotUlfE  OF  MINERAL  SPECIES.  [XVIL 

oxides  of  ferricum,  chromièuTa/ând  Sluminicum,  having  two 
thirds  the  équivalents  ordina^ily  aasigned  to  thèse  metals,  and 
Tepreaented  by  fe,  cr,  and.  al;  so  that  FegO,  becomes  3feO, 
capable  of  replacing  3MgO,  or  l^FeO.  In  the  same  way  arseniô 
and  antimony,  in  one  third  thei*,  usual  équivalents,  may  be  rep- 
resented  by  as  and  sb  ;  AsOg  the^  becomes  SasO.  Silica,  SiOj, 
may  also  be  written  as  3siO,  and  i^  this  means  ail  thèse  oxides 
may  be  reduced  to  the  type  MjO,.  \ 

Wô  hâve  further  asserted  that,  io\  species  crystallizing  in  the 
s«me  fonn,  the  àensity  varies  directlyas  the  équivalent  weight, 
80  thW  the  quantities  obt^ed  in  dividing  the  one  by  the 
other,  and  known  as  the  atomic  or  équivalent  volumes,  wiU  be 
equat  Such  a  relation  is  aiready  recognized  between  species 
^of  the  same  genus,  and  we  now  propose,  having  fixed  an 
équivalent  weight  for  one  species,  to  calculatp,  from  their  den- 
sities,  those  of  the  species  isomorphous  with  it,  and  to  show 
from  the  formulas  corresponding  to  thèse  équivalent  weights 
that  the  différent  gênera  'thus  related  are  homologous,  or  ef- 
hibit  other  intimate  relations. 

[Indeveloping  the  subject  in  the  paper  of  which  the  above^ 

is  the  introduction,  I  began  by  considering  the  volume  of  some 

artificial  salts  the  density  of  which  has  been  carefully  detep- 

mined  by  Playfair  and  Joule,  as  given  in  their  elaborate  me- 

moir  on  Atomic  Volumes.     The  volume  of  the  four  prismatiç 

arseniates  and  phosphates  of  soda,  with  24HO,  was  found  by 

them  to  be  from  233.0  to  236.6;  while  that  of  four  alums, 

with  the  same  number  of  équivalents  of  water,  varied  from 

271.6  to  280.5  ;  thé  presumption,  for  obvions  reasons,  being  in 

each  case  in  favor  of  the  greater  density,  and  hence  of  the 

lesser  volumes.     With  the  alums  were  compared  the  équivalent 

volumes  of  the  chlorides  of  sodium  and  potassium,  calculated 

from  their  ordinary  formulas,  and  the  conclusion  reached  that 

the  crysals  of  thèse  salts  possess  équivalent  weights  which  are 

sûch  multiples  of  NaCl  and  KCl  as  would  give  an  equiva- 

lent  volume  equal  to  that  found  for  the  alums,  or  more  probar 

bly  some  multiple  of  the  latter.    With  the  tolume  of  the 

jaseniatea  «ïid^phosphates  o^Boda^5TOr  riao  compared  Iter^^^ 


>.lf 


f\ 


il. 


■'f 


-T".3  co.srix.no.  ...  vo.ume  op  mx..h..  specs  441 

ferrocyanide  of  potassium  with  C    -  9in        ,  , 

C..  =  234;  the  équivalent  Te  Ifc  "f"   i^'  T^  ^"'^^^^^  ""^"^ 

[An  atten.pt  wi  then  Lait  fix  !«      ^"^  '' 
»>atic  and  rhombohedral  carCsnat     v  T  ""^^  "^  *^«  P"'"" 
«pectively  with  the  isomoïhou;!^^^^      "'"  ^^"•P^^^  ^ 
«Iver  ores,  proustite  and^pX^r    tT"'"^-  '"'  *'^  "^ 
of  bournonite  being  doublivi?  TIu       .  ^^  «ceived  formula 
Phides  made  to  oof^ond  ;Uh  .ft^^^^^ 
«pecies  an  équivalent  volume^gos       .f  ^''  *^"  P"«™««c 
/  ones  546-564.     m  aci^'^^^^tf^  ^'^-^^^^ 
calcite  corresponds  to  a.Ca!o    7p      Ï     *^*  équivalent  of 
dolomite,  chal7bit..  and^Sfte  h^  ^  '  T?  "^  =  «>'  -^«« 
/    mine  and  magnesite  cJlo         P   T'  ^"^«'^'«"  «^"^  cala- 
a^onite,  like  calcite,  is  C^  /"' ^^«P^^'^atic  carbonates, 
«te,  and  bromlite  ar^  CM  O     "^  7     '  strontianite,  ceru- 
With   thèse   were  at   thr^'f^"','"'*  ^'*^«"*«  i«  C,M«0«, 
«orphous  rhombohedml  an?Tri«!^^'  """"P"^^  *^«  h«™œc>- 
Po^h,  from  which  irt^l^^l^^"^^^^^^  ^^  «^^  -^ 
lents  were  to  be  still  further  liT  rî    *^^  *^°^«  «^"i^a- 
aWefixed  for  thèse  rhorboL^^^^f^^^     ^'"*  *^«  -^"-« 
one,  a  measure  of  it,  was^„  i^^r  ^^  '^  »«*  the  tn,e 
examination  of  the^omp^nd  of  ^'1°"  TT'  '^ - 
«odwta,   which  was  obtained  in   1^   ^  ^'^^  "^«"'^^  «f 
"omorphous  with    caJcite  Id  ^      "^"  '"hombohedral  fopns 
Boubling  the  empir^^itrml  oHhfs  'Jr''  ^'  '■'''• 

^e^clr^J^"^^^^^^^^  o^  ^^8.5,  while  that  of 

.Jour.  Science  (2X*X^X4l6^"''^  (^en 

thit  of  saccharose  mtlc   Z\^n'  ""^^''^'^^^^  "«^^^^  ^^^^ 
Pa-a^the  silicates  S  ItrpSr'  ""'.  *'"^  "«^  -- 
'  conchided  that  thèse  IZ^^  5""^'  *^°»  ^^'''h  it  was 

_ïï- attempts  to  dXA^;  trrt"":  "^^°-^"- 

—  anhat  t.e  were,  Cv^^^tL^- ^^^    ^ 


Q 


„\f^'  rM"j^ysi^yi^s:.^t/^fs^}'.'*^\^wr^ 


442  CONSTITUTION  AND  VOLUME  OF  MINERAL  8PECIES.  [XVIL 


analyses,  and  r^ndeied  uncertain  by  dojabtâ  as  to  the  equiva- 
knt  weight  of  silicon. 

[An  important  point  in  the  question  of  hotaology  and  honiœo- 
morphism  was  then  referred  to  in  the  foUowing  language  :  — 

"The  similarity  in  crystallization  between  epecies  whose 
formulas  differ  only  in  the  éléments  of  water  bas  been  pointed 
out  by  Laurent  in  certain  salts  of  organic  acids,  and  is  seen  in 
several  minerai  species.  The  chabazites,  for  exaraple,  give 
the  formula  SRO.SiOj  .  SAlA^aSiOg,  with  15H0  and  18H0, 
while  the  variety  ledererite  affoïâs,  according  to  Hayes  and 
to  Rammelsberg,  but  6H0.  ,  The  hydrous  iolites  are  also  cases 
in  point,  as  well  as  aspasiolite,  the  serpentines,  and  the  talcs, 
with  their  varying  proportions  of  water.  In  the  formulas  of 
thèse  species,  water  appears  to  replace  magnesia,  and  Scheeier 
has  shown  that  inany  différent  species  may  be  referred  to  à 
common  chemical  type,  by  admitting  3H0  to  replace  MgO, 
and  2H0  to  replace  CuO,  etc.  Thèse  cases,  to  whîch  he-has 
given  the  name  of  polymeric  isomorphism,  ai^  but  instancies 
of  the  partial  substitution  of  water  for  other  bases  in  homolo- 
gous  gênera  which  differ  by  nMO." 

[In  the  continuation  of  this  subject,  in  1864,  as  above  re- 
ferred to,  the  question  of  homologies  was  further  illustrated 
by  the  neutral  and  the  basic  nitrates  of  lead,  represented  by . 
a  common  formula  (Pb,08)n  .  N,Oio.  "Thèse  salts  vary  in 
solubility  and  in  physical  characters,  but  resemble  each  other 
in  yieldîng  nitric  acid  and  oxide  of  lead  as  results  of  their  de- 
composition,  and  are  completeîy  analogous  to  the  homologous 
séries  of  Gerhardt,  which  differ  by  n(C8Hj).  From  the  rela- 
tion between  basic  and  hydrated  salts  the  same  tiew  is  to  be 
extended  to  the  latter,  and  species  differing  by  n(OjH,)  and 
n(OjM,)  may  thua  be  homologous.  The  above  formulas  are 
intended  to  involve  no  hypothesis  as  to  the  arrangement  of  the 
éléments,  for  in  the  author's  view,  each  species  is  an  individual, 
in  which  the  pre-existence  of  différent  species  Ihat  may  be  ob- 
tained  by  its  décomposition  cannot  be  asserted.  He  regards 
silicates  like  eudialyte,  sodalite,  and  pyrosmalite  as  oxychlorides, 
jCMiQi)-"  '  MC^i  ftnd  Dosean,  hauyjene,  and  lapislazuli  as  basio  _ 


i^iia     ^  =.-^\A^ 


^  ^ 


.M  ■■ 


.  ji^  'f  ï*\'*  ^-^c  -# i'^^j'^ ^'i' 


■V'    -..(   Vf»; 


■  -'^ry 


XV...]  OONSIm.™»  A»D  VOLUME  OP  «,K,aUL  SPKC.ES    443 
«lie  and  th.  other  oxiL  Z^     The  proportion  between  th» 

Thi.  «  m„«t«.ed  ta  zzi°'^;z'^^s  !r"^- 

«th«  exemple."    fTW  «  t  '^'^"Mhes,  furnUh  .n- 

»»rk  thaï  although  thi,  forXf  ï^^tw.  .""       ""^  •■" 

«d  »  e,„!x,t™iut:'if &•  tz/'f^  f  '■« 

Anorthite     .    .     /«,•    «]    p„  s^  DewJty.         Eq,  vol. 

(8i«al„Ca,)0„   .    .    2.76    .    .    405.0. 


Albite 


Kal„Na^„   .    .    2.62   .  ,k  ,402.4. 


«  Tj  .  '         ^    »  -M  -'"V^M    .     .    Z.dS5    .   ,K  ,402.4. 

of  their  anaJvl  1  k  ««î^^^aïe»*  volume.     The  résulta 

that  ran"  Hot"^^^^^^^^^  -\«t«"t.  and  it  is  p^bable 

albite  anfinorthl      «    K         ""^^  ^'  ^"«^^«  «««t"^  of 

F-pomoM. Heintz  has  shown  by  fractional  precipl 


l 


iiL^e^iiii,-k.Màà*J^iàl&é!ltî 


r- 


•    ■       /'  ■    .■■ . 

444  CONSTITUTION  AND  VOLUME  OF  MîlîEEAL  SPECIES.  [XVII. 

tion  that  there  are  mixtures  of  honfologons  fatty  acids  which 
cannot  be  separated  by  crystallizatiôn,  tlnd  hâve  hitherto  been 
regarded  as  distinct  acids.  The4uthor  insists  that  the  poasi- 
bility  of  such  mixtures  of  relat»d  spècies  should  be  constantly 
kept  in  view  in  the  study  of  minerai  chemistry.  The  smaU 
portions  of  lime  and  potash  in  many  albites,  and  of  soda  in 
anorthite,  petalite,  and  orthoclase,  are  to  be  ascribed  to  mix- 
tures of  other  feldspar-species." 

[The  aboyé  extracts  are  from  the  author's  abstract  of  his 
paper  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science  for  Septemb^r,  1854. 
There  might  be  found  reasoi^  to-day  for  modifying  the  formu- 
las above  given  for  petalite  and  orthoclase,  but  I  leave  them  as 
they  were  wrijtten  twenty  years  sihce. 

[Thèse  vi^s  of  mine  with  regard  to  the  triclinic  feldspars 
hâve  since  been  generally  accepted,  but  by  an  oversight  they 
are  attributed  to  Tschermak,  who,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  first 
announcçd  them  ten  years  later,  namely,  in  1864  (K  K.  Aca- 
démie Wi8senschaft,\Wien).  He  there  stated  thaï;  with  the 
exception  of  the  *  baryta-feldspar,  hyalophane,  and  the  boric 
feldspar,  danburite,  the  feldspan  were  reducible  to  three  spè- 
cies, namely,  adularia  (orthoclase),  albite,  and  anorthite,  hav- 
i^  a  common  fom^ulà,  which,  adopting  the  équivalent  weights 
lised  by  me  above,  becomes  as  foUows  for  the  two  triclinic 
species  : —     ^ 

Anorthite    '    Ca^  al,  al,  si,,  Oj, 

Albite         .     Na,  al,  si,  si,,  O,,, 

This,  which  ib  but  my  common  formula  divided  by  iwo,  is  by 
Tschermak  also  assigned  to  orthoclase.  ;He,  while  admitting 
that  the  potash-soda  feldspars  are  made  up  of  altemations  of 
orthoclase  and  albite,  as  Gerhard  had  shown  in  the  case  of 
perthite,  further  concludes,  as  I  had  already  done,  "  that  oligo- 
claise,  andesine,  and  labradorite  appear  to  be  members  of  a 
great  séries,  with  many  transitional  forms,  and  may  be'regarded 
as  isomorphous  mixtures  of  albite  with  anôi^hite,  sometimes 
with  smfdl  admixtuçes  of  orthoclase." 

[My  views  on  the  gradation  into  one  another  of  the  triclinic 
feldspars  are  again  referred  to  in  my  Contributions  to  lithology, 


?*"■• 


\     \ 


made  to  include  the  8canolit««  :,.  !  feldspathidea  is 

iolite   which  haveVr^e^rZTr^^^^^^^ 
M  a  glucinic  feldspathide,  subject  like  tZTt,  ""'" 

leucite,  and-  the  scapolite;.  to  Cinttion     tl  r"'-^"""'' 
-agnesic  feldspathide.  ha^nj  tî^  ox^?;,^^^^^^  "^ 

responding  to  baraowite  and  bvtownite  L^     !     "  .     '  ^"""^ 
tM^e^  labradorite  and  anortbitl  '      ^-  "»*«""«diate  be- 

nish  antpoltTultor^h'^''?^'  -^^^-W  fu. 
the  precedingpag^      In  tÏe  a1  ""f '"'  P"'  ^'^'^««^  ^ 

1859  (XXVII  S  Win  >1  f    T"*"  "^""'"^  «^  Science  fot 

.«  Which  aU„ ehe  „a„,„"S  "tt^t X'^wS' 

gnivily  of  3.35  and  a  hardnMs  of  7  0     ,f  T™"  ",'"  "[««'«c 

by  ^id,  aft»  i„^„,e  i«„i«ror  ,^1.  tZ^l^T''^ 

"   verted  mto  a  soft  glass  havin^  *  «,^o«îfi      "^.^"'«^^  it  is  con- 

a-iysu a i. fo„„n trv, rso°''f'*-  "^^ 

■   meionite,  thés.  Iwo  «mecies  havin^rir  '""°  "  "' 

,  posHion.  nh.^horèrth:z.^;n;rT"°°'""'-  ■■ 

atMcked  aad  deoompbaed  by  «^idT  °-°'  ""^  "  '^"r 

JîÏn^TSs'!!'"!"'  °'"'°  '■""'*  Ac^iemy,  of  Science 
lor  junei^y,  1863  contains  a  communication  f^^^  ,^.  , 

«  temslal^  in  the  American  JouZZtZlZ  T'  ^Ï!"^ 

1863  (page  42^).     In.  this.  after^ng  in  S  ^  ?"7"^^'' 

euphotide  and  saussurite  aid  theS  oï  m  •^^''"'^  °^ 

^-^asMow,  referring  toJhrLrLVi^Ia^^-*'^-'  ' 
— — *^ln  tha  mPTnfvj*  A./^^^  ._i„'  t  ^i 


i» 


-^«r^mei^oif  from  which  the  fo«going  resulte^arT^" 


**^"-- 


446  CONtfriTUTKUN  and  volume  OF  MINERAL  SPEÇIES.  ptVIL , 

Cl 

I  hâve  insisted  upon  the  relation  of  isomerism,  or  rather  of  poly- 
merism,  which, "exista  between  meionite  and  zoiaite,  and  hâve 
remarked  that  the  augmentation  of  hardness,  of  density,  and 
of  chemical  indifférence  which  ia  seen  in  this  last  apecies,  is 
doubtlesa  to  be  aacribed  to  a  more  elevated  équivalent,  or,  in 
ôther  worda,  to  a  more  condensed  molécule.  Thèse  différent 
degreçs  of  condensation,  which  are  constantly  kept  in  view  in  the 
gtudy  of -organic  chemiatry,  are  beaides,  as  I  hâve  already  elae- 
where  shown,  of  great  importance  in  mineralogy,  and  will  form 
.  the  basis  of  a  new  aystétu  of  clasaificatioB,  ^hich  will  be  at  the 
same  tima  chëtnical  and  nojtural-historical.  (Comptes  Rendus, 
1855,  Vol  XLI.  page  79.)  The  différent  rhombohedral  carbon- 
spars,  kyanite  and  aillimanile^  hornblende  and  pyroxene,  offer 
in  like  manner  examples  of  différent  '  durées  of  condensation, 
and  by  their' chelmical  composition  belong  tueries, the  terms 
of  which,  like  those  of  the  .hydrocarb^;|(ârnC,H»  are  both 
homologues  and  multiples  ôf  the  first  term;  At  the  same  time 
each  one  of  thèse  carbonates  and  silicates  belongs  to  another 
possible  séries,  the  terms  of  which  differ  by  nMjOt,  corre- 
sponding'  to  more  or  leas  basic  salts." 

.  "Meionite,  witb  the  oxygen  ratios  3:  2:  1,  is  the  moat 
basic  term  known  of  the  séries  of  the  wemerites  (scapolitea). 
The  prQj^jflftipn  of  silica  in  thèse  minerais  augmenta  until  we' 
leach  in^'llpyre  the  ration  6  :  2  :  1,  with  a  density  which  does 
not  exceed  2.66.  We  might  then  expect  to  find  a  silicate 
which  should  be  to  dipyre  what  zoisite  or  saussurite  is  to 
meionite,  and  Mr.  Damour  has  recently  hal^he  good  fortune 
tot^Qet  ^vith  such  à  minerai  in  a  spécimen  of  jade  from  China, 
of  which  hé  has  given  us  the  deècription'  and  the  analy^is. 
(Comptes  »Ilei\du8>  May  4,  1863.)  This  substance  closely 
reaembles  iî^jJR^hysical  and  chemiçal  characters  the  saussurite 
or  jade  ^^"^^1^1^^^^  ^^  which  it  has  the  density,  3.34. 
It  is  a  silicailKMiJHtt  and^jpoda,  «àd  gives  the  same 

empirical  ^ot^^^Ê^Èê^^'  We  may  expect  to  find  between 
saussurite  an^j^B|^)ecie8,  i^^vsh  Daniour  gives  the 
name  of  jadeii|;*iothe^ftde8  having  formulas  which  will  corre- 
spond  with  the  Jigernerit«8  intermediate  Jtetvg^^^^^ 


■:ÈS.3 


it  J^>  . 


4  -JtîS 


.   It 


.  ^f 


y 


XVIL]  CONSTITUTION  AND  VOLUME  OF  MINERAL  SPECIEa  447 


wernerite 

rnota,  idocrase,  and  epidotes.     The  folî^intf 
BhoYf  the  relations  pf  tho-iiew  specieàiv 


siirite,  ^i(\ 
tablûâwiil  seïvé 


Denalty  («bout)  \ 

-Oxygerirofio  3:2:1....    MeSute     .    SaZunte  \ 
OxygenraUoe:2:l Dipyre    ...    jXte."       \ 

tha  o  «rthoclase  and  quarts  It  ia  lamdlar  in  structure  and 
exh.b,f^  two  axes  of  polarization.  Unlik.- saussurite.  it  is  not 
^ta^ked  by  ac.d,  aû«r  fusion,  -  a  fact  which  is  to  b^  ascri  J 
to  the  large  proportion  of  silica  which  it  contains  1  ' 


[Professor  J  P.  Cooke  described.  in  1860  (American  Journal 
cmJS  ^U^''^'^-   ''*>'  "°^«  -rioua  examples  in  Tht 
tSl^n  T  "^  ^'^^^^-"^  ^'^^  '^°«'  «^  considérable  vari^ 

.tions  m  composition  without  change  in  cryst-IJine  form.    Thèse 
^,  as  r.„,arked  by  him,  do  not  corne  withJn  the^imite  d^ 
mmorphism  as  genendly  «nderstood,  and  hence  he  concludes 
that     the  composition^of  a  minerai  specios  may^be  modified 
tC    n        7'"**'°''  "^  *^"  proportions  of  its  constitiients." 
exirnl      J      '"'"^"^  composition  are  to.be  r«garded  in  part  as 
examples  of  a  progressive  séries  of  isomorphous  compounds  of 
antim^ny^todjiaa,  of  high  équivalent,  difléring  from  ea«h  other 
"y  ïW*nd  m  part,  doubtlew,  as  crystalline  mixtures  of  thèse 
womorphous  homologous  species.    The  principle  embôSTed  in 
the  conception  advanced  by  IWessor  Cooke,  and  rightly  i^ 
ganied  by  him  of  great  importance  to  a  correcl  science  of  m" 
ernlogy,  he  has  named  allomerism    It  i.  evidently  a  case  of 
homologous  and  isomorphous  relations  between  members  of  i 

ÏS^r  T'^.T*  «™'"^  P"^^P^«  »P«»  ^^i«h-I  hâve  in- 
«sted  hroughout  the  pages  of  this  paper,  and  which  includes 
tùe  polymenc  isomorphism  of  Scheerer.] 


'    Il 


W,=SS^#*i4V^'vln.'.^',y^'S^*  *^. 


-ff  ^■^"f^  *  ' 


rm- 


.^^  -,  ^^' 


XVIII. 


'V 


THOUGHTS    ON    SOLUTION  AND   THE 
CHEMICAL  PROCESS! 

a854) 

Thia  paper  appeared  In  the  American  Joamal  of  Science  for  Janoary.  1854,  and  alao 
in  tlie  Chemical  Gazette  for  18&â,  page  90. 

35y  solution,  as  distinguished  from  fïisîon  or  volatUization, 
we  underatand  in  chemistry  the  production  of  a  homogeneous 
liqtiid  by  the  conj^ination  of  two  or  more  bodies,  one  of  which 
mijst  itself  be  in  a  fiquid  state,  while  the  others  may  be  liquid, 
solid,  or  gaseous.  The  solvent  action  of  acids  and  alkalies 
upon  bodies  insoluble  in  water  is  by  ail  admitted  to  be  chemi- 
cal  in  îts  nature  ;  but,  according  to  Leopold  Gmelin,  "mixtures 
of  liquids,  and  solutions  of  solids  in  liquids  (as  of  acids,  alka- 
lies, salts,  oils,  etc.,  in  water  and  alcohol),  are,  by  Berzelius, 
Mitscherlich,  Dumas,  aqd  others  of  the  most  distinguished 
modem  chemists,  regarded  as  not  chemical  unless  they  take  place 
in  definite  proportions."  «  Mitscherlich  attributes  such  unions 
to  adhésion,  Dumas  to  a  solvent  power  intennediate  between 
cohésion  and  (chemical)  affinity,  and  Berzelius  refers  them  to  a 
modification  of  ajffinity,  while  proper  chemical  combinations  ac- 
cording to  him  resuit,  not  from  affinity,  but  from  electrical  at- 
traction."   (Gmelin's  Handbook,  English  éd.,  Vol.  I.  p.  34.) 

The  leamed  author  of  the  Handbook  objects  to  thèse  views 
that  "  they  restrict  the  idea  of  a  chemical  compcy^id  within 
too  narrow  limits,"  and  he  elsewhere  implies  that  the  force 
which  produces  solution  is  a  weak  degree  of  chemical  affinity. 
(Ibid.,  Vol  I.  p.  70.)    The  judicious  T^rogr^ajaQ  Bpmika  of  ordi- 


,,j .. J:vîffl'fe.ï2,*-;.--i  .*i;'iJ&aâfeJ 


XVIIL]        SOLUTION  AND  THE  CHEMICAL  PROCESa  449 

^ry  solutions  as  instances  of  chemical  union;*  and  Mr  J  J 
Gnffin  has  msisted  upon  the  same  view  t     As  the^w 

«  càemtcal  nmon,  we  propose  to  offer  sonie  considérations  UDon 

sents  aJl  the  phenomena  of  .^emical  combination  Fii^t  7n 
the  fact  that  tJ.e  i^ulting  sâturated  solutions  are  pêrt^t  v 
homogeneous  Secondly.  in  the  condensation  and  mor^  or  £ 
perfect  ident.hcation  of  volume  (ante,  page  428)  obse"  ed  Z  Z 
process     some  anhydrous  salts  dissolve  in  water  wLhoùt  ^„ 

Mich  attends  tlio  process;   thus  oU  of  vitriol,    hydiale   of 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  theliquid  state  of  thèse  aoua 
ouB  comWions  is  often  an  accident  of  tempelu  "  akm 
and  the  rhombic  phosphate  of  soda  are  liquids  at  2  12"f    Ind 

The  ea^  wx  h  which  many  of  thèse  compounds  are  destroyed 

bi:Z      ""'  v'-^^"^  '^  ^^^"«^  «^  tlper.ture,7nTto 
be  urged  as  an  objection  to  the  chemical  nature  of   he  union 

cIorMe  an'd '^  7T7  *'^  -"-P-^^-g  «^Iver-salts  with  the  • 
chlonde  and  lodide  of  gold,  or  the  hydrochlomtes  of  morphil 
and  ammoma  with  those  of  caffeine  and  piperine,  whTchÏs^ 

t;"^'^';:;^  --^-^'^-     ^^«--I  amnity  may  Z 

According  to  Gay-Lussac.  one  part  of  oil  of  vitriol  will  ab- 
aorb  from  a.r  satumted  with  moistu,^  fifteen  parts  of  Itor 
or  mo,^  than  eighty  équivalents;  terchlorideTa«  n^^ 
quires  eighteen  équivalents  of  water  to  dissolve  CIT  tS 


^h.,rim^:miue.  (3).  VoLxxix  ?:"»»: 


00 


ff'^ 


»•'  ij^&tiâ^S.  .«.'î'  •!.<  i-y^rfC^i   H  >«8â..  liiii  ^i  4k   î,  ■ 


.  A*»  WÙ 


ri^f^v     r'-'w"-^  i. 


'^^^ 


"  t»T'  "7     J-^i^  -TT  ' 


450 


SOLUTION  AND  THE  CHEMICAL  PROCESS.        [XVIIL 


saturated  solution  unités  with  as  muc||  more  water,  evolving 
lieat  and  fonning  a  stable  solution.*  According  to  the  ex- 
périmenta of  Mr.  Griffin  in  the  paper  cited  above,  the  conden- 
sation which  takes  place  in  the  solution  of  the,  acid  is  still 
perceptible  with  6,000  équivalents,  of  water  to  one  of  SO,. 
There  appears,  however,  to  be  with  many  bodies  a  limit  be- 
yond  which  the  affinity  for  water  is  satisfied,  and  the  liqûîds 
being  then  mechanically  mixed,  gradually  separate  by  reason 
of  their  différence  in  density,  as  is  observed  in  dilute  alcohol, 
and  probably,in  some  saline  solutions  t  and  in  metallic  alloys. 

Solution  is  a  resuit  of  t^t  tendency  in  nature  which  con- 
stantly  leads  to  unity,  condensation,  identification.  I  hâve 
elsewhere,  with  Kant,  defined  chemical  union  to  be  inter- 
pénétration, but  the  conception  is  mechanical,  and  therefore 
fails  to  give  an  adéquate  idea.  The  définition  of  Hegel,  that 
t/ie  chemical  process  is  an  identification  of  the  différent  and  a 
differeniiation  of  the  identical,^  is,  however,  completely  adé- 
quate. Chemical  unlqin  involves  an  identification,  not  only  of 
the  volumes  (interpénétration  mechanically  considered),  but 
of  the  spécifie  characters  of  the  combining  bodies,  which  are 
lost  in  those  of  the  new  species.  Such  is  equally  the  case  in 
aqueous  solution,  and  we  may  say  that  ail  chemical  upion  is 
nothing  else  than  solution  ;  the  uniting  species  are,  as  it  were, 
dissolved  in  each  other,  for  solution  is  mutuaL 

Solution  being,  then,  identification,  the  discussion  as  to 
whether  metallic  chlorides  are  changed  into  hydrochlorates 
when  dissolved  in  water,  is  meaningless.     Such  a  solution  is  a 


•  Penny  and  Wallace,  L.,  E.  and  D.  PhiL  Mag.,  November,  1852,  page  363. 

t  See  Gmelin's  Handbook,  Eng.  éd.,  VoL  I.  p.  111.  Omelin  throws  a 
doubt  npon  thèse  experinients  ;  but  the  satisfactory  results  obtained  on  a 
large  scale,  in  applying  this  principle  to  the  rectification  of  spirit  of  wine  by 
a  recently  patented  process,  were  oommnnicated  to  the  American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  at  Washington  in  May,  1864,  by  Dr.  L.  D. 
Gale.    [This  is  questionable.] 

t  Stallo's  Philosophy  of  Nature,  page  453  ;  aee  also  page  67,  ■where  Stallo 

insists  upon  the  same  view.    To  Hegel  belongs  the  merit  of  having  flrst 

among  modem  philosophers  obtained  a  jnst  conception  of  the  nature  of  the 

chemical  process,  although  in  its  application  he  was  misled  by  the  received 

Jeroiiuology  of  the  scienca.  


^ia-is.*, 


iS»»»^'/-    éitj/tia 


■jm. 


XVmO       SOLUHOK  X»»  THE  CHEmcAI.  PROCESs'  451 

bycoM,  i,  Chemical  decomlilL  „r  d^      'T    °"'"  «"<» 
«aid  Ihat  the  combinaMor^^  ■"  «luLoM  ;  we  hâve  already 

■  d^chioric  .a  a„d  «:':°r  „f'i;r  r  °"  ''^- 

tation  of  chloride  of  antimonv  «n^    ^  ^^  P^'^'^^P»- 

and  mercury  by  water Tan  t  ?  "^°^      ""  "^  ^^'°^"*^ 

position  of  LVu^i^TchS^^^^^^  ^^^^-- 

of  what  is  called  double  eLtivP  '  ffl  f  /  ''  "^  *^  "^'^'°PÏ« 
_/^e.),  and  is  generally  ex^l::::  tZ^'Zt.^'T  '- 
of  arsemc  for  oxygen,  and  that  of  éh^^^ne  ^f  f  ^/"'^^'^^ 
able  the  chloride  and  water  fn  L  ^"""^*^°'  hydrogen,  en- 
these  elemental  BpecieslL^exrT'r  T'-  "*'^^-  ^"' 
they  ai^  possible  results  of  "te  de  ol.  v  ''^""'"'  '^*^^"«^ 
the  process  in  this  uianner  is  1 1?  u  ;  °"' '"'^  *°  «^P^*^'^ 
yet  unformed  species.  ""^'  ''  ^'^  *^«  «ffi°itie«  of 

invllt^nt^Uo^dt  I^^^  '''^^"^P-^*-  «'-^« 

-  eannot  in  eve^rfr^ir  rrr  ' 

Under  some  chanimrl  nn^^u-  ..  P"^®^  »*  tne  «rat  stage. 

the  deoo„,p™ifcrirw  r  f-^^^p^""™  .-d  p,^„t 

«nion,  «>d  th„.  repS,™  the  „rir?'P''î  ■>'  *e  p„vio„. 
8»»  at  a  tempe»ta,r.  ,t,r.  f^TT"  ''"°  -'"«"'X.and  ox,- 


--^O^Honlaél^-rr^e^^rL^ 


.-MiiÂcii!£Aài&^'^ai<^.!^^e^4âiatt^ 


•  L-dSj,  VBui. 


~-^  -«n     ™wn^T-t-^'^* 


r   ^  t  £./-    T  '!►',?  «-iTf,    fS    -"^^»«^^Ç  JtW    Tî^^^^.?^^ 


452 


SOLUTION  AND  THE  CHEMICAL  PROCESS.        [XVIIL 


union,  giving  rise  to  new  species,  we  hâve  double  décomposi- 
tion. In  the  case  of  chloride  of  arsenic,  the  aqueous  solution 
exhibits  tfie  first  stage  of  the  process.  A  similar  condition  of 
uustable  union  is  observed  in  many  other  instances;  thus 
binoxide  of  manganèse  gives,  with  cold  hydrochloric  acid,  a 
brown  solution,  but  the  combination  is  by  a  gentle  beat  re- 
solved  into  chlorine  gas,  and  a  rose-red  solution  of  protochloride 
of  manganèse.  So  a  mixture  of  équivalent  parts  of  chloride 
of  beuzoyl  and  benzoate  of  soda  combines  at  |  température  of 
.  130°  C,  to  form  a  limpid  solution,  and  it  is  only  on  raisin<' 
the  température  that  the  pr^ipitation  of  sea-salt  indicates  the 
commencement  of  that  décomposition  which  yields  at  the  same 
time  anhydrous  benzoic  acid.*  It  is  only  when  looked  upon 
as  a  momentary  combination  followed  by  a  décomposition,  that 
the  theory  of  double  décomposition  becomes  intelligible,  and  is 
in  accordance  with  known  facts. 

From  the  narrow  limits  of  température  which  often  include 
the  two  processes,  and  from  the  ease  with  which  light,  warmth, 
friction,  and  pressure  excite  the  décomposition  of  such  bodies 
as  the  chloride  of  nitrogen,  the  nitrite  of  ammonia,  the  oxides 
of  chlorine,  and  the  metallic  fulminates,  we  may  conceive  that 
within  still  narrower  limite,  and  under  conditions  as  yet  unde- 
fined,  many  bodies  may  exhibit  affinities  for  each  other  which 
are  reversed  by  a  very  çlight  change  of  condition.  In  this 
way  we  may  explain  many  of  those  obscure  phenomena  hith- 
erto  ascribed  to  action  hy  présence  or  catalysis. 

'   •  Gerhardt,  Ann.  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique,  S""  Série,  Tom.  XXXVII. 
page  299. 


.'îtfc. 


»  "     ^^   A   . 


^i/A--jTj,|     ', 


I-  -ai^  <■       ■vç^^gï»??!^ 


XIX. 

ON   THE   OBJECTS   AND    METHOD    OF 
MINERAXOGY. 

(1867.) 

tems  of  this  kind,  howevei,  like  those  of  Mohs  and  his  foUowe« 

re  ated  to  nat  ve  nunerals,  are  excluded.     It  may  moreover  be 
saui  m  objectjo.  to  thèse  „at,u.lists,  that,  in  Jwidri  nse 
the  Chemical  histcy  of  bodies  takes  into  considemtion  ail  thosé 
characte,.  upon  which  the  so-called  natural  système  of  cl^l 
-tion  are  basod.     I„  order  to  unde,.tand  clLly  the  qurot     ' 

what  the  provinces,  i^pectively.  of  mineralogy  and  of  chem 

Of  the  three  great  divisions,  or  kingdoms  of  nature,  the  clas- 

.fication  of  the  vegetable  gives  rise  to  systematic  boteny    lït 

of  the  animal  to  zoology.  and  that  of  the  minerai  to  mine^lo^ 

^  hasfor  its^i^eçt  th^natural  histo^  of  aU  theCsS 
Tmorcanized  matter.     Th»  «.iof;„„„  „r  .!.-'__  .       «-"«  «mns^ 


_,^      -^^^-r:^^'Mi^''Mss_uai,umi  nistonr  ot  aU  the  fonnsTï^ 


•HSï>!iM&«i|i-i*i«5it*ji^" 


■...■?  V.1,1 


i^y.^; 


ITil 


(* 


454  OBJECTS  AND  METHOD*  OP  MINERALOGY.  [XIX. 

sion,  light,  beat,  electricity,  and  magnetism  belong  to  the  do- 
main  of  physics  ;  while  çhemistry/treats  of  their  relations  to 
each  other,  and  of  their  transformations  under  the  influences 
of  heat,  bght,  and  electricity.  Chemistry  is  thus  to  mineralogy 
whatbiology  is  to  oiganography.j  and  the  abstmct  sciences, 
physics  and  chemistry,  must  précède,  and  form  the  basis  of  the 
■concrete  science,  mineralogy.  Many  specifes  are  chiefly  distin- 
f       .  g^shedby  their  Chemical  activities,  and  hence  Chemical  char- 

acters  mu^t  be  greatly  depended  upon  in  mineralogical  classifi- 
cation. 

Chemical  change  implies  fiisorganization,  and  ail  so-called 
Chemical  species  are  inoiganic,  that  is  to  say,  unoi^anized,  and 
hence  really  belong  to  the  minerai  kingdom..  In  this  extended 
sensé,  minemlogy  takes  in  not  only  the  few  metals,  oxides*  sul- 
phides,  silicates,  and  other  salts  which  are  found  in  nature,  but 
also  ail  those  which  are  the  products  of  the  cbemist's  ski^.'  It 
embraces  not  only  the  few  native  resins  and  hydrocarbons,  but 
ail  the  bodies  of  the  carbon  séries  made  known  by  the  re- 
searchës  of  modem  chemistry. 

The  primary  object  of  a  natural  classification,  it  must  be  re- 

membered,  is  not,  like  that  of  an  artificial  system,  to  serve  the 

s  purpose  of  determining  species,  or  the  conveniehee  of  the'stu- 

^  <^ent,  but  80  to  arrange  bodies  in  gênera,  ordera,  and  species  as  to 

satisfy  most  thoroughly  natuial  affinities.  Such  a  classification 
in^niineralogy  will  be  based  upon  a  considération  of  alï  the 
physical  and  chemical  relations  of  bodies,  and  will  enable  us  to 
see  that  the  various  properties  of  a  species  are  flot  sq  many 
arbitrary  signs,  but  the  necessary  results  of  its  constitution,  It  ' 
will  give  for  the  minerai  kingdom  what  the  labors  of  gçeat 
naturalists  hâve  abeady  nearly  attained  for  the  vegetabl4*and 
animal  kingdoms. 

Oken  saw  the  necessity  of  thus  enlarging  the  bounds  of  min- 
eralogy, and  in,his  PhysiophUosophy  attempted  a  mineralogical 
classification  ;  but  it  is  based  on  fanciful  and  false  analogies, 
with  but  little  reference  either  to  physical  or  chemical  charac- 
ters,  and  in  the  présent  state  of  our  knowledge  is  valueless, 
except  as  an  effort  in  the  right  direction,  agd  an^attempt  to 


.!*',/«■  .;.•  '. 


^i!r 


XIX.1  OBJECTS  AND  METHOD  OP  MINEEALOGY.  455 

^ve  to  minemlogy  a  natural  System.    With  simîïar  views  as  to 

he.scope  of  the  science,  and  with  far  higher  and  justeTonC 

ions  of  Us  method,  Stallo,  in  his  Philosophy  of  NatZZ 

.touched  the  questions  befoi.  u,,  and  has  attLp  Jto  it^ 

ity,  hght,  and  electncity,  but  ha*  goi^  no  furtl,er 

rn  approaching  this  great  problem  of  classiiication.  we  hâve 
to  examine,  first,  the  physical  condition  and  ^elation^T  S 
species,  consider^d  with  i^lation  to  gravitvLhZn  li^f 
^.  !^ectricity..and  magnetism  ■  secc^diy^ïh^tS^fS 
tory  of  the  species.  m  which  are  to  W  considered  its  natui^^" 
ekmentel  ^r  compound,  its  chemical  i^tiona  to  otheT  ^0^ 

fol      Th         T"""'^'   '^   P'^y^^-^   conditionraS 
.  forces.     The  quantitative  relation  of  one  mineml  (chemicS) 

ruTquaJit^^r""  ''  "^''-''^'y  ^  '^«  -y^^^  -  essen. 
It  is  from^  aU  th,  above  data,  which  would  include  the  whole 
physical  and  chemic^  histoiy  of  inoi^ic  bodies.  that  a  na^ 
Z-r  r  :^«^«'^''^-l  «1-ification  is  to  ie  built  ut 
Their  apphcatioîi  may  be  iUustrated  by  a  few  points  drawn 
fix)^  the  l^istoiy  of  certain  natural  feidiies. 

The  variable  relations  to  space  of  the  empmcal  équivalents 
of  non-gaseous  species,  or,  in  other  words.  the  varying  lu  v! 
,  fent  volume  (obtainea  by  dividing  their  empirical^quLent 
weights  by  the  .peoifîc  gravity).  shows  that  there  exist'irTffel 
ent  species  ve^  unlike  degr«es  of  condensation.  At  tl  same 
me  we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  molecular  consZ- 
tion  of  gems,  spars,  an^^ores  is  such  that  those  bodies  must  be 

weSt-nf  'T^".  rV^  ^"'''^^'  -^  with^ulvale^ 
weights  far  more  elevated  than  those  usually  assigned  to  the 

cn^H        ^f   1  ^^^  *^*  *"^  *^^->     To  similar  conclusions 

conduce  also  the  researches  on  the  spécifie  beat  of  compound^ 

There  probably  exista  between  the^true  équivalent  wei<rht8 


•il 


.X 


y^ 


-M  fV^TTlT         tl .  ^«="oi«'i«»  »  relation  a»  simple^ 

ytHat  between  the  équivalent  weights  of  gaseous  species  a^ 


è^^Éi^^t-^<kAéi-i^'^4B»a*'Z^^^i^-, 


f^:^y^^T^}'v^i-^f'i^^^^^^^ 


45é 


OBJECTS  AND  METHOD  OP  MINERALOGY.  [XIX. 


their  spécifie  gravities.     The  gas  or  vapor  of  a  volatile  body 
conetitutes  a  species  distinct  ftom  the  same  body  in  its  liquid 
or  solid  State,  the  chemical  fottuula  of  the  latter  being  some 
multiple  of  the  firet  ;  and  the  liqûid  and  solid  species  them- 
eelves  often  constitute  two  distinct  species  of  différent  -équiva- 
lent weights.      In  the  case  of  analogous  volatile  compounds, 
as  the   hydrocarbons   and  their  derivatives,  the  équivalent" 
weights  of  the  liquid  or  solid  species  approximate  to  a  con- 
stant quantity,  so  that  the  densities  of  those  species,  in  the 
case  of  homologous  or  related  alcohols,  acids,  ethere,  and  gly- 
cerides,  are  subject  to  no  greàt  variation.     Thèse  non-gaseous 
species  are  generated,  by  the  chemical  union,  or  identification, 
of  a  number  of  volumes  or' équivalents  of  the  gaseous  species^ 
which  number  varies  inversely  as  the  density  of  thèse  species. 
It  follows  from  this  that  the  équivalent  weights  of  the  liquid 
and  solid  alcohols  and  fats  must  be  so  high  as  to  be  a  common 
measure  of  the  vapor-equivalents  of  ail  the  bodies  belonging  to» 
thèse  séries.     The  empirical  formula  Çi„HuoCm,  which  is  the 
lowest  one  representing  the  tristearic  glyceride  (ordinary  stéa- 
rine), is  probably  far  from  representing  the  true  équivalent 
weight  of  this  fat  in  its  liquid  or  soM  state;  and  if  it  should 
hereafter  be  found  that  its  density/corresponds  to  six  times 
the  above  formula,  it  would  foUdw  that  liquid  acetic  acid, 
whose  density  differs  but  slightly  from  that  of  fused  stéarine, 
must  bave  a  formula  and  an  équivalent  weight  about  one 
'   hundred  times  that  which  we  dèduce  from  the  density  of 

acôtic-acid  vapor,  CtHtOt. 
y  Starting  from  thèse  high  équivalent  weights  of  liquid  and 
solid  hydrocarbonaceous  species,  and  their  correspondingly 
(complex  formulas,  ire  become  prepaired  to  admit  that  other 
orders  of  minerai  species,  such  as  oxides,  silicates,  carbonates, 
and  sulphides,  hâve  formulas  and  équivalent  weights  corre- 
sponding  to  their  still  higher  densities  ;  and  we  proceed  to 
appl;jr  to  thèse  bodies  the  laws  of  substitution,  homology,  and 
polymerism,  which  bave  so  long  been  recognired  in  the  chemi- 
cal study  of  the  members  of  the  hydrocarbon  séries.  The- 
J^"™"^**^  *'^""  deduced  for  the  native  silicates  aud  carbon-apar»?, 


p  ~    •  .i  lifriy  ^  %\  i  '•?J"*^«^;'''*'^6yî?^^ 


T-^^-,  ■ 


^^^]  OBJECTS  AND  METHOD  OF ^MINERALOGY.  457 

show  that  thèse  polybasic  salts  may  contain  many  atoms  of 
différent  bases,  and  their  frequently  complex  and  varylng 
constitution  is  thus  rèndered  inteUigible.  In  the  application 
of  the  pnnciple  of  chemical  homology,  we  find  a-ready  and 
naturel  explanation  of  those  variations  within  certain  limita 
occasionally  met  with  in  the  composition  of  certain  crystaUiné 
sUicates,  sulphides,  etc.;  from  which  some  hâve  conjectured  the 
pistence  of  a  déviation  from  the  law  of  definite  prdportions, 
in  what  13  only  an  expression  of  that  laAv  in  a'higher  form 

Ihe  pnnciple  of  polymerism  is  exemplified  in  related  minerai 
species,  such  as  meionite  and  zoisite,  dipyre  and  jadeite,  horn- 
blende and  pyroxene,  calcite  and  aragonite,  opal  and  quartz,  in 
the  zircons  of  différent  densities,  and  in  the  varions  forms  of 
titenic  acid  and  of  carbon,  whose  relations  become  at  once  in- 
telligible if  we  adopt  for  thèse  species  high  équivalent  weights  " 
and  complex  molécules.      The  haixiness  of  thèse  isomeric  or 
^o^'"  «If  "e«..and  theùr  indifférence  to  chemical  i^gents, 
increase  with  their  condensation,  or,  in  other  words,  vary  in^ 
ve^ely  as  their  empirical  équivalent  volumes;  so  that  we  hère 

ertfes.'  ""  ^^^""''  '^'"^"^  ""'^  Phy^i^^ï  P«>P- 

It  is  in  thèse  high  chemical  équivalents  of  the  species,  and 

n  certain  ingénions  but  arbitrary  assumptions  of  numbe,^, 

that  is  to^e  found  an  explanation  of  the  results  obtained  h^ 

s^«^!r  Tww ';"  '''"P*"^  '^'  ^°^"™-  «f  ^-"°"«  «olid 
species  yth  that  of  ice;  whose  constitution  they  assume  to  be 

represented  by  HO,  mstead  of  a  high  multiple  of  this  formula 
The  récent  ingénions  but  fallacious  spéculations  of  Dr  Mac- 
vicv,  who  has  arbitrarily  assumed  comparatively  high  équiva- 
lent weights  for  minerai  species,  and  has  then  endeavo^red 
by  conjectures  as  to  the  architecture  of  crystaUine  molécules 
to  estabhsh  relatio«s  between  his  complex  formulas  and  thé 
regnlar  sohda  of  geometry,  are  curions  but  nnsuccessful  at- 
tempts  to  solve  some  of  the  problems  whos^  significance  I  hâve 
hère  endeavored  to  set  forth.  I  am  convinced  that  no  geo- 
^tncal  grouping  of  atom8,^uch  as  ammagined  by  Mac^ca^^ 


■/«•' 


wdrV  Gaudîh,can  ever  ^Ve  us  an  insight  into  the  wayï 


{- 


-ttrf 


^       .^  >  *V  rflif^      i     1  1  ^w  .' 


458  OBJECTS  AND  METHOD  OF  MINERALOGY.  [XIX. 

which  Nature  bnilda  up  her  units,  by  interpénétration  and 
Identification,  and  not  by  juxtaposition  of  the  chemical  élé- 
ments. \ 

!None  of  the  abovç  points  are  presented  as  new,  though  they 
are  for  the  greater  part,  I  believe,  original  with  myself  and 
haye  been  froni  time  to  time  brought  forward  and  maintained 
vnth  numerous  illustrations,. chieliy  in  the  American  Journal 
of  Science,  since  March,  1853,  when  my  paper  on  the  Theory 
01  Chemical  Changes  and  Equivalent  Volumes  (an<c,  page  426) 
was  there  published.  I  hâve,  however,  thought  it  wpll  to  pré- 
sent thèse  views  in  a  connfected  form,  as  exemplifying  mv 
notion  of  some  of  the  principles  which  must  form  the  baais 
01  a  true  mineralogical  classification. 


=:^ 


^  ^ 


[XIX. 


r- 


(  r 


and           '     m 

ele-       ._     ■ 

they                1 
and                H 

ned,                ■ 
mal                H 
aory                 H 
126)                ■ 

« 

pi-e-                 ■ 

luy                 ■ 

lasis                H 

/■ 


XX. 


THEORY  OF  TYPES  IN  CHEMISTRY 


a848-1861.) 


l 


«cation,  appeaml  in  8«ptember,  "Kd  wÏÏ  foiïwîÏT m!:**  "h"  ff'"'™'  ^'^'■ 
pauer  on  8oine  Polrtto  to  be  considered  liT rh!!ni    .  n,  ^  *"**  "'"'y-  '*«9.  by  a 

appeaml  «  paper  on  the  (^nâruS,  t^^n       ,^'^'''''''**'T    ^^  J'"--'/.  1850, 

C«;odyle  Séries.    I„  Ma^M^  I  i,ÏÏ^hT        *"'"»'""«»'"««  the  Bodles  of  the 

the  p«ceding  papb«.  —e^l^  ^dX  on  "1""^*"' "''/'''""  ""'"'"•^  '" 

Theoretical  ReUtions  of  Waterand  Hvd^  Ih  ^  i   Î.""*'  '"  ""  «^^  «»•  The 

in  those  viewB  of  chemical  theo^\SÏÏTrt  ,?"*  ^""l'-^ttag  for  rayaelf  the  priority 

adopted  by  Gerh.Hlt.  ymZZl  T^LT  "-y  «"""««««'"«nt  of  them  been 

•„  WurU  of  a  criUcUm  o7S  in  lÏÏV™«  «th»  chemUta.    The  publication-  by 

Theory of-Types  l„  ChemUtTin  wE I  h.™-.      7','*.*'"'  '"""'"^  P»P<«  «n  "'« 

..velopment  oVTy  viewrluiS  i!  he  Can:,^^]'  "^fr  *''5'"'*°'^  °'  »»>«  «»«- 

the  American  JoumM  of  SciencV^^theMl  mo^/T  r^T^^  '"'  **'"'''  *«'l'  «"<J  "» 

^    pHntlng  1,  «laea  an  appendlx'^oVïCn  ^^rNStS^Îr"'''  ''^^    '  '"'''  ^  '- 

IITT  î  .  .  "'  *  °'^  classification  of  the  latter.  He  • 
objecta  to  the  four  types  admitted  by  Gerhardt,  namely,  hydn^ 
gen,  hydrochloriç  acid,  water.  and  anunonia,  tiat  they  sulfa^ 
to  organxc  compounds  only  artificial  and  extemal  relais  w^e 
he  concexves  that  between  thèse  and  certain  other  bodie  rhere 
are  natural  relations,  having  référence  to  the  origin  of  thi 

thlTl'"""''-  f*'^^  '^"^  ''''  ^^*  *^«*  ^1  the  bodies  of 
the  Carbon  senes  found  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  are  derived 
from  carbomc  acid,  with  the  concun^nce  of  water,  he  plTelds 
to  show  how  au  the  compounds  of  carbon,  h^drogerand 
oxygen  may  be  cierived  from  the  type  of  an  oxide  of  "  rC 
which  iB  either  C^O,,  C.(V  or  th^Jxypotbetical  €,0. 


i'««'àSmwm 


Éfi'JfcJs!|feA»iàïjfe^'to;;-i*^«>i-i«^>^^  ji-v  ,î,aiî  «1  t^s^ 


.mr.Aj^ 


,^4^  ''.s 


^"   *i_'   "î 


„,. , .  ,^ 


460 


THEORY  OF  TYPES  IN ,  CffiBMISTRY. 


[XX. 


When  in  the  -former  we  replace  one  atom  of  oxygen  by  one 
of  hydrogon  we  hâve  G,OaH,  or  anhydrous  formic  acid  ;  tho 
replacement  of  a  second  équivalent   would  yield  CgO,H„  or 
the  unknown  formic  aldéhyde  ;  a  third,  C.OHj,  tha-  oxide'  of 
methyle  ;  and  a  fourth,  C,H«,  t)r  formene.      By  substituting 
methyle  for  one  or  more  atoms  of  hydrogen  in  the  previous 
formula,  we  obtain  those  of  the  corresporiding  bodies  of  tlie 
vinic  séries,  and  it  will  be  readily  se^n  that  by  iiitroducing  the 
higher  alcoholic  radicles  we  may  dérive  from  CjO*  the  formulas 
-et  ail  the  alcoholic  séries.     A  grave  objection  to  this  view  is, 
however,  found  in  the  fact  tliat  while  this  compÔund  may  bê 
made  the  tyj»  of  ,the  aldéhydes,  acétones,  and  hydrocarbons,  it 
becomes  nec^ry  to  assume  the  hypothetical  0,0,,  HO,  as  the 
type  of  the  acids  and  alcohols.     Oxide  of  carboh,   C,0^  is 
according  to  Kolbe,  to  bie  received  as  the  type  bf  hydrocarbons 
like  olefiant  gas  (C,HMe),  while  C,0,  in  which  ethyle^replaces 
oxygen,   is  CjH,,  or  lipyle,  the  supposed   triatomic   base  of 
glycérine. 

The  monobasic  organic  acids  are  thus  derived  from  one  atom 
of  C,0<,  while  the  bibasic  acids,  like  the  succinic,  are  by 
Kolbe  deduced  from  a  double  molécule,  C4O8,  and  tribasic- 
acids,  like  the  citric,  from  a  triple  molécule,  CeO^.  He  more- 
over  compares  sulphuric  acid  to  carbbnic  acid,  ai^d  dérives  from 
it  by  substitution  the  various  sulphuric  organic  compounds. 
Ammonia,  arseniuretted  and  phosphuretted  hydrogen,  are  re- 
gârded  as  so  many  types  ;  and  by  an  extensien  of.his  view  of  . 
the  replacement  of  oxygen  iyy  électro-positive  groups,  the 
ethylides,  ZnEt,  PbEt,,  and  BiEt,,  are,  by  Kolbe,  assimilated 
to  the  oxides,  ZnO,  PbOj,  and  BiO,. 

Ad.  Wurtz,  io  the  Eepertoiré  ^e  Chimie  Pure  for  October, 
1860,  has  given  an  analysis  of  Kolbe's  memoir  (to  which,  not 
having  the  original  before  me,  I  am  indebted^for  tho  preceding 
sketch),  and  follows  it  by  a  judicious  criticism.  WhUe  Kolbe 
adopts  as  types  a  number  of  minerai  ^pecies,  includiùg  the 
oxides  of  Carbon,  of  8ulphur,And  the  ffletals,  Wurtz  would  " 
maintain  but  three,  hydrogen  (IT,),  watpr  (H,0,),  and  ammonia 
(NH,)  ;  and  thèse  three  types,  as  he  e^deavored  to  show  in 

r  ' 


«"' 


»'>^  L I  .     ^S^Oi,'. 


■.%J, 


^.  ■'■■onifmf_-^:j>:, 


XX.] 


THEORY  OF  TYPES  IN  CHEMISTRr. 


4G1 


1855,  represent  difTerent  degrees  of  condensation  of  matter. 
The  molécule  of  hydrogen.  H.  =  (M,.),  correspônding  to  four 
volumes,  combmes  with  two  volumes  of  oxygen  (O.)  to  form 
four  volumes  of  water,  and  may  thus  bo  n3garded  as  condensefl 
to  one  half  in  its  union  with  oxygen,  and  derived  fr6m  a 
double  molécule,  M,M,.      In  like  manner  four  volumes  of 
ammonia  contain  two  volumes  of  nitrogen  and  six  of  hydro- 
gen  which    being  reduced  to  one  thitd,  correspond  to  a  triple 
molécule,  MaM,,  so  that  thèse  three  types  and  their  multiples 
are  reduciblo  to  that  of  hydrogen  more   or  lésa   condensed^ 
(Wurtz,  Annales  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique  (3),  XLIV  304  ) 
As^regards  the  rejection  of  water  as  a  type  of  oiganic  com- 
pounds,  and  the  substitution  of  carbonic  acid,  founded  upon 
the  considération  that  thèse  in  nature  are  derived'  from  C  O. 
.,  Wuria  has  well  remarked  that  water,  as  the  source  of  hydrcî^ 
geii,  18  equally  essential  to.  their  formation,  and,  indeed,  that 
the  carboiHc  anhydride  C.O^  likè  ail  other  anhydrous  acids 
toay   bè  regarded  as  a  simple  derivative  of  the  water-type' 
Havmg  then  adopted  the  notion  of  referring  a  great  variety  of 
bodies  to  a  mi««»l-gpecie8  of  simple  constitution,  water  is  to 
be  preferred  to  carbonic  anhydride,  first,  becanse  we  can  com- 
paro  with  it  many  mineml  ciara'pounds  which  can  with  diffi- 
culty  be  compared  with  carbonic  acid  ;  and,  secondly,  becartse 
the  two  ato^s  of  water  bein^  replaceable  singly,  the  modé^ 
denvation  of  a  great  number  of  compounds  (acids,  alcohols, 
ethers,  etc.)  is  much  mor«  simple  and  natural  thari  from  car^' 
borne  acid      As  Wurtz  happily  remarks,  Kolbe  has  so  fuUy     , 
adopted  the  theory  of  types,  that  he  wishes  to  multiply  them 
and  even  admits  condensed  types,  ^hich  are,  however,  mole^^ 
cules  of  carbonic  acid,  and  not  of  water;  "he  combats  the 
types  of  Gerhardt  and  at  the  same  time  counterfeits  them  " 
Ihus^far  we  are  in  accordance  with  Mr.  Wurtz,  who  has 
Bhown   him^lf  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  inteUigent  ex- 
pounders  of  ^his  doctrii^l>f  molecular  types  as  above  defined  • 
-- now  almoH  univA^Uy  adopted  by  chemists.     He  writes,' 
To  my  mmd  this  idea  of  referring  to  water.  taken  as  a  type.  _ 
=»  rery  great  nnmberoT  compounds,  is  one  of  the  most  beauté  ~ 


|ti^¥'Hj^  IfMi'i 


HilsJ^  t^A^)J^'Ui'u^3^''% 


462 


THEORY  OF  TYPES  IN  CHEMISTRY. 


[XX. 


fui  conceptions  of  modem  chemistij."  (Répertoire  de  Chimie 
Pure,  1860,  page  359.)  And  again,  he  déclares  that  the  idea 
of  regarding  both  water  and  ammonia  aa  représentatives  of  the 
hydrogen-type  more  or  less  condensed,  to  be  so  simple  and  eo 
gênerai  in  its  application  that  it  is  worthy  "to  form  the  basis 
of  a  System  of  chëmistry."     (Ibid.,  page  356.) 

We  hâve  in  this  theory  two  important  conceptions  :  the  first 
18  that  of  hydrogen  and  water  regarded  as  types  to  which  both 
minéral  and  organic  compoiinds  may  be  referred;  and  the  sec- 
ond is  the  notion  of  condensed  and  derived  types,  according  to 
which  we  not  only  assume  two  or  three  molécules  of  hydrogen 
or  water  as  typical  forms,  biit  even  look  on  water  as  the  de- 
nvative  of  hydrogen,  which  is  itself  the  primai  type. 

As  to  the  history  of  thèse  ideas,  Wurtz  remarks  that  the 
proposition  enunciated  by  Kolbe,  that  aU  organic  bodies  are 
denved  by  substitution  from  minerai  compounds,  is  not  new 
but  known  in  the  §ct8ïice  for  about  ten  years.     "  WUliamson 
was  the  first  who  said  4hat  alcohol,  ether,  and  acetic  acid  were 
comparable  to  water,  _  organic  waters.     Hoffman  and  myself 
had  already  compared  the  compound  ammonias  to  ammonia 
Itself  .  .  .  .  To  Gerhardt  belongs  the  merit  of  generalizing 
thèse  ideas,  of  developing  them,  and  supporting  them  with  his 
beautiful  discovery  of  anhydrous  monobasic  acids.     Although 
he  did  not  introduoe  into  the  science  the  idea  x>f  types,  which 
belongs  to  M.  Dumas,  he  gave  it  a  new  form,  which  is  ex- 
pressed  and  essentially  reproduced  by  the  proposition  of  Kolbe 
Gerhardt  redueed  ail   organic  bodies  to   four  types,  —  hy- 
drogen, bydfochloric  acid,  water,  and  ammonia."    (Ibid.,  j)age 

300.) 

The  historical  inaccuracies  of  the'  above  quotation  are  the 
more  surprising,  since  in  March,  1864,  I  published  in  the 
Amencan  Journal  of  Science  (XVII.  194)  a  concise  account 
of  the  progress  of  thèse  views.  This  paper  was  lepublished 
m  the  Chemical  Gazette  (1854,  page  181),  and  copies  of  it 
were  by  ipyself  placed  in  the  hands  of  most  of  the  distin- 
guished  chemists  of  England,  Fronce,  and  Germany.  In  this 
M>gr  I-havei  ghown  that  the  gey»  of  Ute  ittea  of  mii 


-.f'" 


XX.]  THEORY  OF  TYPES  IN  CHEMISTKY.  463 

types  is  to  be  found  in  an  essay  of  Auguste  Laurent  (Sur  les 
Combinaisons  Azotées  Ann.  de  Chimie  et  Physique,  kve" 

as  water  (HA)  m  which  ethyle  replaces  one  atom  of  hydro^^n 
and  hydnc  ether  as  the  resuit  of  a  complète  substitu'iion"  of 

ttt  wh^T.  "^  '  ^°°^«*°'°  «^  «%!«•  Hencehe  observed 
tbat  while  ether  is  neutral,  alcohol  is  monobasic  and  the  type 
of   he  monobasic  vimc  acids,  as  water  is  the  type  of  bibasic 

;  .   '^  :f '°^^«  "°^  ^^"«^''P''"S  *h'«  idea  of  Laurentri 
ins^sted  xn  March,  1848,  and  again  in  January,  1850.  upon  the 
relation  between  the  alcohols  and  water  as  one  of  Lomology 
water  bemg  the  first  term  in  the  séries,  and  H,  being  in  iS 
manner  the  homologue  of  acetene  and  formene;   while  the 

aZ  f  r^'  "'?  "^'  "^  "^'"*^^"  *«  *^-  correspond  ng 
alcohols  the  same  relation  that  ammonia  does  to  water/  rAnf 
Journal  of  Science,  V.  265  ;  IX.  65  ;  XIU  206  ) 

(Ibid  VI  173),  I  endeavored  to  show  that  Laurent's  view 
might  be  further  extended,  so  as  to  include  in  tlTtypror 
water  ntl  those  saline  conOnnations  (acids)  which  contain  oxy- 
Z  L  '°  ^  P^^Y  "^  ^^'^'^  *^«  ^°'«"«*"  Association  for 
1848  tT'T"'  '^  ^T*^  **  Philadelphia,  in  September,. 
1848,  I  further  suggested  that  as  many  neutral  oxygenized 

tives  of  acds  which  are  leferable  to  the  type  H^  "««  m«e/ 

chTnni  Jd  ^-  ï"  '"^  '  "'^""'^  ^^  hydrocarbons  and  thei^ 
chlonnized  denvatives,  as  also  the  volatUe  alkaloids   which 

Cl  or  '^'J^r  «-'"f  ^°'  ''^"  "P^'^^-  ^«^  «*«-  of  H  or 
0  in  ihl  ''  '^r^^'"*'  '^'  '^^^"^  ^H  is  eubstituted  for 
U,  m  the  corresponding  alcohols.     (Ibid.,  VIII  92  ) 

whilVw.^^'"^"''^^^^  ^°  September,  1848,  I  ehowed  that 
Titi  ZT  '"    "^"'  f'  '^^'  ""^'^  "^«  hypochlorous  and 


-«nd  1^0,  tôr  H,  weienecessariTy  monobasic,  and  I  then  pointed 


k^''\ 


**JU^ 


].. 


464 


Tip:OEY  OF  TYPES  IN  CHEMISTRY. 


[XX. 


\, 


out  the  possible  existence  of  the  nitric  anhydride  (N"04)ja, 
which  was  soon  after  discovered  by  Deville.  Gerhardt  ^ 
this  time  denied  the  existence  ot  anhydrides  of  the  monobaîiic 
acids,  regarding  anhydrides  as  pharacteristic  of  polybasis  acida, 
and  indeed  was  only  led  to  adopt  my  views  by  the  discovei^: 
of  the  veryanh^ydrides  whose  formation  I  had  foreseen,* 

In  explaining  the  origin  of  bibasic  acids  I  described  them 
as  produced  by  the  replaig^ment,  in  a  second  équivalent  of 
water,  of  an  atom  of  hydrogen  by  a  monobasic  saline  group  ; 
thus  sulphuric  acid  would  be  (S2H0eH)0j.     Tribasic  acids  in 
like  manner  are  to  be  regar^ed  as  derived  from  a  third  équiva- 
lent of  water  in  which  a  bibasic  residue  replaces  an  atom  of 
hydrogen.      The   idea  of  polymeric  types  was  further  illus- 
trated  in  the  same  paper,  where  three  hydrogen  types  were 
proposed  (HH),  (HjHj),  and  (HjHj),  corresponding  to  the  chlo^' 
^  rides  MCI,  MCls,  and  MCIa.    It  was  also  illustrated  bysulphur 
in  its  ordinary  state,  which  I  showed  is  to  be  regarded  as  a 
triple  molécule  Sg  (or  S,  =  4  volumes),  and  I  referred  sulphur- 
ous  acid  SOj  to   this  type,  to  which  also  probably  beldngs 
selenic  oxide.     (At  the  same  time  I  suggested  that  the  odorant 
form  of  oxygen  or  ozone  was  possibly  Og.)     Wuriiz,  in  his 
memoir,  published  in  l855,adopt8  my  view,  and  makes  sulphur 
vapor  at  400°  C,  the  type  of  the  triple  molécule.     I  furiiher  sug- 
gested (American  Journal  of  Science,  V.  408;  VL  172)  that 
"gaseous  nitrogen  is  NN,  an  anhydride  amide  or  nitryl,  corre- 
sponding to  nitrite  of  ammonia  (N0a,NH40)  —  H^O^  =  NK 
This  view  a  late  writer  attributes  to  Gerhardt,  who  adopted  it 
from  me.     (Ann.  de  Chimie  et  Phys.,  LX.  381.)    May  not 
nitrogen  gas,,a8  I  hâve  elsewhere  suggested,  regenerate  under 
certain  conditions,  ammonia  and  a  nitrite,  and  thus  explain 
not  only  the  fréquent  formation  of  ammonia  in  présence  of  air 
and  reducing  agents,  but  certain  cases  of  nitrificatioRÎt      §, 

*  The  anhydrides  of  the  monobasic  acids  correspond  to  two  équivalents  of 
the  acid,  minus  one  of  water,  as  ^C,H«0«)-H,0,=  r,H,0,;  while  one 
équivalent. of  a  bibasic  acid  (itself  deHved  from  2H,0,)  loge*  one  of  water, 
and  becomef.  an  anhydride,  as  CH.O,  -.H,0,  =  Cfi^.  8o  that  both  classes 
of  anhydrides  are  to  be  referred  to  the  %e  of  one  molécule  of  water,  H^ 
LTJ'o  formation  of  A  nitrite  in  the  experiment»  of  Caoe»  appaan-te  be  »- 


\ 


\ 


4^ 


BA'i' 


«& 


XX.]       .  THEOEY  OP  TYPES  IN  CHEMISTRY.  465 

I  endeavored  stiU  further  to  show  that  hydrogen  h  to  be 
ooked  upon  as  the  fundament^Ltype,  from  which  |^e  water 

i^sidue  HO,.     (Ai^encan  Journal  of  Science,  VIII  93  /   In 

■  J  ïrr  "l""^^',  P""*'"*"^  against.the  view  which  regafds  the 
so-called  rational  fomulas  as  expressing  in  any  wav  tW  Taî 
structure  of  the  bodies  which  L  thus  repres'ent  d.  Th^e 
formulas  are  mvented  to  explain  a  certain  class  of  reacMo^s 
and  we  may  construct  from  other  points  of  view  other  rationS 
fomulas  which  ar«  equaUy  admissible.  As  I  hâve  elsewhe^ 
Baxd    "the  vanous  hypothèses  of  copulates  and  radicles  ar^ 

ZÂ       .)!       Tt  ""^'""^  S^"^'^*^^"'  ^'^^  ^^  hâve  no 
plac^n  a  theory  of  the  science."    AU  chemieal  changes  ar^ 

wtn t  th  r  h  <^'«^*^r"-)  -d  d--n  (differentratio^^ 
ignate  the  process  ^  metemorphosis,  which  is  either  by  con- 
densation or  by  expansion  (homogoneous  differentiation);     In 
metagenesis,  on  the  contrary,  unlike^pecies  may  unité,  and  by 
a  subséquent  heterogeneous  differentiation  give  rise  to  new 
species,  constituting  what  is  caUed  double  décomposition,  the 
XBSults  0    which  differently  interï>reted,  bave  give'n  origin  to 
the  hypothesis  of  radicles  and  fhe  notion  of  substitution  by 
Ksidues,  to  express  the  relations  between  the  parent  bodies  and 
their  progeny.     The  chemieal  histoiy  of  bodies  is  then  a  i^cord 
of  their  changes  ;  it  is  in  fect  their  genealogy,  and  in  making 

lfrJ!fr*  f  *'»'' P"'""'*  °'  ""•"""'•'  "^  t«  «^"î"  only  the  élément. 
nîoL?  7     •  /C°™P*«'R«'nd'«.LXI.  13fi.)  lome  expérimente  nTw  S 
progress  lead  me  to  condnde  that  the  âopearance  of  a  nitrite  in  th^Jl  J 
processes  for  ozone  is  due  to  the  power  ofZ^n"  o.y^nTi^t^l  wT 

niiryi ,  so  that  the  odor  and  many  of  the  reactions  assiened  to  n,An-  «. 
nascent  oxygen  are  really  due  to  the  nitn,us  «=id  whichTSlrl  wîrthe 
former  enconnters  nitrogen  and  molsture.  On  the  other  hand  nZ^t  hvdi 
gen,  which  readily  reduces  nitretes  and  nitrites  to  ammonirblî^r^tinî  th.' 
regenerated  nitrite  of  the  nittyl,  pwKiuces  mim^^'---^^-'^  **^' 
-TBoepheric  nitrogen.  [See  Appendix,  page  470.1 
20»         • 


; 


àtl"»»*^ 


^^b^^      ^^     i^àîSi^^  ^V     «.^^   r 


,4f&M.i,^ 


■.,if'.; 


466 


THEOEY  OF  TYPES  IN  CHEMISTRY. 


[XX. 


y 


use  of  typical  fonnulas  to  indicate  the  dérivation  of  chfemical 
species,  we  should  endeavor  to  show  the  ordinary  modes  of 
their  génération.    [See  the  preceding  papers  XVI.  and  XVIII.l 
Keeping this principle in mind,  let us now eXamiiiethe  theory 
of  the  formation  of  acids.     Aa  we  hâve  just  seen,  I  taught  in 
1848  that  the  monobasic,  bibasic,  and  tribasic  acids  are  derived 
respectively  from  one,;two,  and  three  molécules  of  water,  HA- 
Mr.  Wurtz,  seven  years  later,  put  forth  an  analogous  view.   He 
however  supposes  a  monatomic  radicle  PO^  a  diatomic  radicle 
PO'gj^and  a  triatomic  radicle  PO",,  replacing  respectively  one, 
.two,  and  three  atoms  of  hydrogen  in  HjOi^  H,G„  and  HaO/- 
thus  (PO',H)0^  (PO'',H,)0^  and  (PO"',Hs)0«.     Thèse  radicles'  • 
evidently  correspond  to  PO^  which  has  lost  one,  two,  and  three 
atoms  of  oxygen  in  reacting  upon  the  hydrogen  of  the  watei^ 
types,  and  the  acids  may  be  accordingly  represented  as  formed 
by  the  substitution  of  the  residues  PO5  —  0  for  H  PO.  —  0 
forH^andPO,  — OjforHs.  '  ' 

To  this  manner  of  representing  the  génération  of  polybasic 
acids  we  object  th«t  it  encumbers  the  science  with  numerous 
hypothetical  radicles,  and  that  it  moreover  fails  to  show  the 
actual  successive  génération  of  the  séries  of  acids  in  question. 
When  phosphoric  anhydride  is  placed  in  contact  with  water, 
it  combines  with  one  équivalent.     The  union  is  followed  by 
•homogeneous  differentiation,  and  two  équivalents  of  metaphos- 
phonc  acid  resuit.     Two  équivalents  of  this  acid  with  one  of 
water  at  ordinary  températures  aie  slowly  transformed  into  two 
of  pyrophosph'oric  acid,  by  a  reaction  precisely  simUar  to  the 
last;  whiletwo  équivalents  of  pyrophosphoric  acid  when  heated 
with  a  third  équivalent  of  water  yield,  in  like  manner,  two  of 
tnbasxc  phosphoric  acid.     The  génération  of  the  three  wids 
may  be  represented  as  foUows  :  — ^.^.--------""'"^ 

^„^P?«)  »^^àC+  H.O.  =  2(P0,H)0.  or  2(PH0.) 

2(PHA).or  (PH.O.XO.  +  HA  =^  2(PH.0.H)0,  or  2(PH.oi 
Gerhardt  long  since  maintained  that  we  cannot  distinguish 
between  polybasic  salts  and  what  are  ralled  sub-wlts,  whieh- 


*  A'"' 


sviiiyîi,-.^j\ 


y%u 


7fV 


^^^ 


n  'nf^fl^  <  ■•  ; 


XX.J 


THEORY  OF  TYPES  m  CHEMSTRY. 


467 

NO„MA,H.O.  (heptol«i„),  bott  ^'■J^^f^^^"'»-").  "d 
of  composition  at  392°  F.  ^®"*  ^*^'' 

Thecompoundsofeulphuricacid-are.'T    TK    * 
sulphate,  SAMO,  con^pond^rtoTh;  Ll'         ""^"'^^^^ 
the  anhydrous  bisulphati  .  2    Th«.!S    ^''"^^"««'^  ««^  and 

spondu.g  to  the  glacial  acid  of  dens^  78^^^^'^ 
SA,MA.  represented  by  turpeth,  minera      5    Th  ï^ 

qnadribasicsulphates.  S,aMO  ^ Jt'"^"^^  '  ^-  The  soK^Ued 
basic  type  stilLtaiC^:!^;  em^^Pf^'/'T!: 
on  Salta   Jour,  de  Pharmacie,  I848,  Vol    xil*  •   A  ' 

Journal  of  Science  VI  ^^7\   ^xr^*u    \  '   -^^encan 

correspond  to  the  annexed  radiXT-  ^  '  "''''^"°' 

1.   Unibaaio  s,HO,     =S0 

•    -2.  Bibasic  s,ILO,    =  S V 

3.  Quadribasic       S.H,0„  ^s^ 


4.  Sexbasic" 
6.   Octobre 


,SrH.O«=S, 


monatomic,,., 
diatonifc. 
tetratomic 
hexatomic 


__^^  .  »t^^4   =S,— O,     octatomic. 

..1*1™..    (Compta,  hS.  a_  CJlLT^  •l™l«>-"««.ll..r»Ud^ 

"•a^-M-rtew  eIèctro-n«mtire  raciipi»  «Z^^t  ***  ''  P"^  *^>  proposé». . 

of  hydrogen  HO.,  TZ^^^^'^^  •"»«  »'  ^rine.  the%S 


'-»V 


468  THEORY  OF   TYPES  m  CHEMI8TRY.  f.  [XX 

The  mode  of  the  génération  of  acids  set  forth  in  the  case  of 
^;ho8e  derived  from  phosphoric  anhydride,  which  we  conceive 
to  be  a  simple  statement  of  the  process  as  it-  takes  place  in 
nature,  dispenses  alike  with  hypothetical  radicles  and  residues, 
both  of  i^hich  are,  however,  conve'nient  for  the  purposes  of 
nc^tion-  In  the  sélection  of  a  typical^form  tô  which  a  great 
number  of  species  may  be  referred,  hydrogen  or  water  merits 
the  préférence  from  its  simpUcity,  and  from  the  important  part 
which  it  plays  in  the  génération  of  species.  .  Water  and  «ar-^ 
bonic  anhydride  are  bothsotjirectlyeoncemedîn  the  génération 
ôf  the  bodies  in  the  carbon  sériés,  that  eithçr  may  be  assumed 
as  the  type;  but  we  prefer  to  regard  pjO<,  like  {he^other  an- 
hydrides, as  only  a  derivative  of  the  type  of  water,  and/  ulti- 
mately  of  the  hydrôgen-type.  ^ 

Thèse  views  were  first  put  forward  by  myself  in  1848,  when 
I  expressed  the  opinion  that  they  were  destined  to  form  "the 
basis  of  a  true  liatural  System  of  che^ical  classification  "  ;  and 
it  was  only  after  baving  opposed  them  for  four  years  to  those 
of  Gerhardt,  that  this  chemi8t,in  June,  1852,  renounced  his 
views,  and,  without-any  acknowledgment,  adopted  my  oVvn. 
(Aun.  de  Chim.  et  Phys.  (3),  XXXVII.  285.)  Already  in 
1851,  WilliamBon,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  British  Associa- 
tion, had  develbped  the  ideas  on  thewater-type  to  which  Wurtz 
refers  above,  and  to  him  the  English  editor  of  Gmelin's  Hànd- 
book  ascribes  the  theory.  The  notion  of  condensed  types,  and 
of  Hj  as  the  primai  type,  was  not,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  brought 
forward  by  either  of  thesè,  and  remained  unnoticed  until  re- 
Buscitated  by  Wurtz  in  1855,  seven  years  after  I  had  first  an- 
nounced  it,  and  one  year  after  my  réclamation  already  noticed, 
which  was  published  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science,  in 
March,  1854. 

My  daims  hâve  ûot,  however,  been  overlooked  by ,  Dr. 
Wolcott  Gibbs.  In  an  essay  on  the  polyaci4  bases,  he  re- 
marks  that  in  a  previous  paper  he  had  attributed  the  theory 
of  water-types  to  Gerhardt  and  Williamson,  and  adds  :V"  In 
fhis  I  find  I  hâve  not  done  justice  to  Mr.  T.  Sterry  Hunt,  to 
-whom  18  «xclumvely  due  tbe  crédit  of  having  first  appited  the 


«  \k.j.>/i  i^^-ji 


■J 


■     -^J  •      ■    .     THEoir  0»  TYPES  IN  0HEMI8IKY.  469 


'. 


wS^^lÂA^ii.  'S','1  À  <.■>£ 


.ïv»!   Vri,rt'j:»^> 


470 


ON  THE  THEORY  OF  NITRIPICATION. 


[XX. 


t 

U^ 


APPENDIX. 

ON  THB  THEOBT  OP  NITRIFIOATION. 

In  connection  with  the  foot-note  on  page  466  the  foUowing  sketch 
of  the  theory  of  nitrification  there  indicated  seema  called  for  the 
more  especiaUy  as  it  wiU  be  seen  that  the  hte  Professor  d  C 
Schaeffer  of  Washington  apparently  anticipated  me  in  certain  pointa 
therem.    It  was  m  the  Amer.  ^  Jour.  Science  for  May,  1848  (page 
408),  that  I  referred  to  Qerhardt's  observation  that  the  so-called 
.  protoxide  of  nitrogen  corresponds  to  biphosphamide,  PNO,  and  is 
.    NNO,  a  nitryl  derived  from  idtrate  of  anunonia  by  the  removal  of 
2H,0,  and  capable,  when  heated  in  contact   with    an   alkaline 
hydrate,  of  regenerating  ammonia  and  a  nitrate.    I  then  called 
attention  to  the  similar  décomposition    of  nitrite  of  ammonia, 
which  by  the  loss  of  2H,0  yields  nitrogen  gi>s,  and  remarked  that 
the  gas  thus  obtained,  "apparenUy  identical  with  that  of  the  at- 
mosphère, is  really  eomposed  Ôftwo  eq^vgfents  oftht  élément  mstaïn- 
tngi  to  each  other  the  saine  relations  as  Innitrmts  acide,"  or  in  other 
wordB  representing  respeetively  the  nitrous  and  the  ammoniacal 
conditions.    TWs  view  of  the  constitution  of  gaseous  nitrogen  was 
again  set  forth,  in  September,  1848,  in  the  paper  quoted  above,  as  a 
means  of  expkining  the  apparent  anomaly  in  the  équivalent  volume 
of  nitrogen.    The  obvions  conclusion  that  gaseous  nitrogen  might 
(after  the  manner  of  nitrous  oxide)  regenerate  ammonia  and  a 
mtnte  by  assuming  the  éléments  of  water,  2H.0,  was  not  insisted 
«pon.    It  was,  however,  for  years  so  familiar  to  me  and  so  often  set 
îorth  in  my  lectures  on  chemistry  before  the  médical  classes  at  the 
Umversité  Laval  at  Québec,  that  I  spoke  of  it  in  the  above  paper  in 
March,  1861,  as  a  >iew  which  I  had  elsewhere  suggested,  though 
this  was,  I  beheve,  the  firét  time  that  it  had  been  enunciated  bv  me 
m  pnnt.    In  further  explanation  of  the  subject  I  published  in  the  ^ 
Amer  Jour.  Science  for  July,  1861  (page  I09X  a  note  in  which,  afler 
descnbmg  the  génération  of  ozone  or  active  oxygen  by  passing  air 
ttiroiigh  a  solution  of  permanganic  acid,  and  the  production  of  a  ni- 
tnte  from  air  thus  ozonized,  I  referred  to  the  conversion  of  gaseous 
nitrogen,  as  above,  into  ammonia  and  nitrom  acid,  and  ad^ed  : 
^Tom  the  instability  of  the  componnd  of  thèse  two  bodies,  however, 
it  becomes  neceasaiy  to  décompose  the  one  at  the  instant  of  its  forma- 


-x 


"v"^ 


"^1  ON  THB  THEOBT  OP  NIDIFICATION  "  471 

«on  7Ste  fSS  T"''  "  °°'*  ""'"*'«  «"""""î»  »<th  tonna. 
(NN)  aoomr  in  ii.  ^:.    j   °'  ""  »'°"»  "'  Mtrogen  in  the  nitryl 

required  the  présence  of  active  pxygen,  or  of  a  flxed  base  to  sep^te 

newTvSl  oTS.T'^*  .T^^"*^  «^  ^^^^"^-  hâve  fSed 
tJ,»  Jr  r  1*^*  ^"^^  formation  of  a  nitrite  at  the  expense  of 

thenitrogen  of  the  atmosphère.    According  to  him.  when'E  of 
paper  moistened  with  a  feeble  solution  of  In  «IkaÛ  or  ^  aS^H^e 

ddi/r^  ?  *'^  f'  ''^'"^''y  -  thr^re^nroft^ï  ; 

Sra?uffi!  ent^PTÎr/^*^  °^  ^  ^'  ^^e  alkaline  base  sooj 
^tiônrAmLT;?^  °^  "^*~"'  «^^^  *«  «i^«  the  characteristic  , 
Sïï  in  £K       '^  ?1"'*^**  *™'  -^^«-^'"g  t«  Schônbein. 
Het^overtirLlTH^S"'**  *^^  interventic^of  an  alkalL 
.,  SriTa^JS  l'".^"g,y^.  "'""^  with  ^aittle  potash^ 


,  ouu  craporatecrstowly  at  a  temperatuye  of  about 


^^^ft*v^^lliiir^*lhïykI-fï^*iî/féî^l^'a-^"cij^f^  L-i-»*-  *,'  '. 


>  ^  jh'  *i^ 


472 


ON  THE  THEORT  OF  NITRIFICATION. 


[XX. 


,  in  the  open  air,  ftxeg  in  one  case  a  small  portion  of  anunonia 
and  iB^  thô  other  a  little  nitrous  acicL    Traces  of  a  nitrite  are  also 
formed  in  pure  water  under  similar  conditions.    Schonbein  explains 
«11  of  tbes^  résulta  by  the  combination  of  nitrogen  with  the  éléments 
of  the  water,  producing  at  the  same  time  anunonia  and  nitrous  acid. 
As  he  has  well  remarked,  this  reaction  serves  to  explain  the  abtjorp- 
tion  pf  nitrogen  by  végétation,  and,  through  the  oxidation  of  nitfites, 
the  formation  of  nitrates  in  çature.    By  thèse  élégant  expérimenta' 
he  has  confirmed  in  a  remarkable  manner  my  theory  of  nitriâcation 
and  of  the  double  nature  of  ûee  nitrogen.     It  is,  however,  évident 
that  since  the  publication  of  myi  note  of  March,  1861,  above  referred 
.    to,  we  cannot  say,  with  Schonbein,  ^hat  the  génération  of  nitrite  of 
ammonia  from  nitrogen  and  water  is  'a  most  wonderful  and  wholly 
unexpected  thing.'    (Letter  from  Schdnbein  to  Faraday,  Philos. 
Magaaàne,  June,  1862,  page  467.)  "  Keferring  to  the  claims  of  Schon-. 
bein,  andlto  my  notes  of  Mareh  «nd  July,  1861,  the  late  Professçr 
Nicklès  witote  as  follows  in  1863,  in  his  scientific  correspondenice  for 
the  American  Journal  pf  Science  ((2)  XXXV.  263)  :   «Schonbein 
ïias  done  justice  tardily  to  those  who  hâve  preceded  him  in  this 
question.    Of  this  number  is  T.  Steny  Hunt,  who,  as  our  readerp 
may  remember,  long  since  showed  that  nitrite  of  ammonia  may  be 
formed  by  means  of  nitrogen  and  water,  and  thus  led  the  way  to  a 
p-  new  theory  of  nitrification.    This  is  what  Bottger  arrived  at,  who 
Itrst  announced  that  nitrite  of  ammonia  is  a  produèt  of  aU  combus- 
tién  liff  the  air."    With  regard  to  the  production  of  nitrite  of  am- 
moma  from  nitrogen  and  water,  he  further  adds,  «this  point  wa» 
entuely  developed  by  Steny  Hunt* 

.    The  publication  of  the  above  caUed  forth  a  communication  from 
Professor  G.  C.  Schaeffer  in  the  Amer.  Jour.  Science  for  November. 
1863,  pagje  40^  m  which  he  draws  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  Re- 
pprt  of  the  Snut^sonian  Institution  for  1861  contains  an  essay  on 
Nitnfication  by  D?.  B.  F.  Craig  (written  in  1856),  in  which  the  lat- 
ter  puts  forth  as  the  suggestion  of  Professor  Schaetfe»  the  samb 
tiieory  of  nitriBcation  as  that  maintained  by  the  présent  writer  and 
by  Schonbem  ;  basing  it  upon  the  view  that  nitrogen  gas  is  a  nitrvl 
eapable  of  regenerating  nitrite  of  ammonia  m  pi^sence  of  water 
From  this  it  is  clear  that  Professor  Sehaeffer  had  independently  at^ 
tamed  the  iame  conclusion  as  myself  from  the  conception  of  the 
dual  nature  of  fttmospheric  nitrogen,  which  I  had  taught  since  1848. 
He  at  the  same  time,  as  a  contribution  to  the  literature  of  the  subject, 
caUed  attention  to  his  paper  in  the  Proceedinga  of  tke  American  As- 


'4ËdÉ>â 


,.a'n.|^'-j 


fi 


r^ft 


\ 


XX.)  ON  THE  THEOIty  OP  HITRInCATIOM.  473 


^ 


\^ 


,  -»       -~ 

''^m 

'^^^}^^,     '"' 

m- 


phisf] 

Alums 

18,  H 

in  wa 

Aiamut 
998. 

/■ 

w0':: 


r-/ 


IIî'DEX. 


«» 


c* 


■V 


Acld  sprinm»   îll-nrv— v    u       J    Production,  471.  ' 

On  Jl  A.  181.    '  ^'^  ^"^  and  A„dal„„te  nx^H  28.  82.  84.  248.  21. 

Aclds  of  volcanoes,  thelr  oriirin  s  m   a„j  '  *^\,  * 
m,  112.        ^  "*^'  *'  "•  Andrewg,  E.  R,  on  potroleum,  174/ 

Adams,  C.  B..  on  the  goology  of  Von     aw    '  ^"^«"«'«Kica  Scandinavlca, 
mont,  891.  ■»  ""'' • 


mont,  891. 
Adirongk  Mountalns.  rook«  of;  82, 

AeroJltes,  constitution  of.  802. 
Agalmatolite  rocks,  «7, 
Albertitç,  composition  of.  I7e, 


^i^<»y^toe  schlsts  of,  270. 

Anhydritfts  of  the  Alps,  886. 
Anhydrons  monobasic  acids,  4fl4. 
Anorthite,  its  formola,  448. 
Anortholite,  81,  82.^^ 


mula  of.  448.  ,'  "*'  HAi^«cite,  ite  origto.  177;  of  the  AIps, 

Alhnmin/xM.      ...    ..  I      «2,  884. 


Albuminoids.   constitution   and  artl- 
flcfal  production  of.  170.  ^ 

Alga».    8e»  Sea-weeds. 
Alkalies,  relative  proportions  in  wators, 
IMi  of  minerai  water»,   18«     8m 
n^!r^i'!!«°^?«^"'dPot..h. 


AnMclinals,  their  relations  to  moun- 
talns, 68. 

Antlcosti^ieology  of,  416. 
AnticostTgroup,  417. 
ApatiM,  197,  208,  211,  218,  811. 
jAMjlaohlans,  geology^of.  60,  61,,  76, 


Alkaliferous   silicates,   décomposition     24l 
of,  2,  10,  40,  102,  108.  »~"'™n|;»J 

Alkftline  sUicates,  soluble  7  21  96     ïtA^  ^'î*'*»"»''.  2.  »,  »6. 
Alkaline  waters,  86,  128  166     *  "* /it""*»»».  vein-stones  of,  209. 
A„._..      ».     •  .  .  "8.  166.  /  Arenlgrocks,  876,  876,  881,  884. 

Arirnalna   osa 


Allegbany  River,  brines  of,  121. 
AUomerism,  447. 

Alp«,  geology  of,  828;  anthracitfo  sys- 
JJJ   of,    882;    grand  ^on    of, 

AIt«jttonofrock.^Met«no. 
Alum  slates  of  Swede^  286,  866 


Almnina,  solution  ind  déposition  of. 
»«,  14,  98,  142^iuIphateof,  98,  188 
ta  waters.  142/  8ee  Bauxite. 

AInmltio\i8  slHcatos,  origfa  «f,  as,  2M. 


Arkeslne,  880. 

Arkose.  286. 

Artesian  wells  of  London  ud  Paris, 

Aspldella  Terrajjovlca.  410. 

Sor^*'*'*'  P^'^  ^'  2°»  *<*.  42. 47, 
Atmospherie  waters.  04. 

AfAn.1.     I .  .  ' 


Atomlo  hypothesls.  488.*  488. 
Atomio  voInme^  488,  486,  440,  466. 
Attritlon  of  rocks,  20. 
Amiral  rocks,  247,  421;  thelr  wl». 
tionto  matinal,  414. 


(Asolo gneUHWs  oFBbj^,  246. 


'-''"1-   ~h 


476  INDEX. 


Babbaqb  on  internai  beat,  14,  71. 
Bala  rocks,  858,  859,  862. 


Bailey,  t.  W.,  geology  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, 407. 
Banded  Btructnre  in  veiîts,  198, 199, 
Bangorgroup,  868,  882,  884. 
Bark,  its  composition,  181. 
Bàrrande  on  palœozoic  geology,  258, 

868,  869,  878^  892,  424. 
Baiyta,  salts  of,  in  waters,  87, 121. 141. 

145. 
Basic  salts,  Gerhàràt  on,  467. 
Bauxite,  14,  98.826.  ; 

BelœiJ,  Québec!;  water  of,  161. 
Belt,  T.,  on  Lingula  flags,  871, 
Bergmann  on  Mont  Blanc,  888. 
Bertr^d  on  Mont  Blanc,  888. 
Berzelins  on  silicate  of  lime,  161. 
Béryl,  'l;B9,   245;   kaolin  of,   101;   i 

feldspathide,  445. 
Bessarabia,  sait  lagoons  of,  86. 
Bicarbonates.     8ee  Carbonates. 
Biddeford,  Maine,  granitic  veins  of,  198. 
Bigsby,  J.,.on   Hnronian  rocks,   18, 
269;  on  Cambrian,  269;  on  the  geol- 
ogy of  Québec,  896,  400. 
Billings,  E.,  on  the' geology  of  Ver 
mont,  260-266,   891-898;    on  the 
Potsdam  rocks/  266;  on  Levis  fos- 
silà,   258,   400,    408,   404,   412;    on 
Eoph)rt»n,    409:   on   the   Anticosti 
grou^,  416;  on  Middle  Silnrlan,  417. 
,  Biscbbf,  G.,  16;  en  a  source  ofsulphn- 
'SËPjfâbsydrogen,  87;  on  decomposl- 
.  .^tipeiltHeates,  102, 161  ;  on  formation 
f     of  silicate  of  magnesia,    122;   on 
anthracite,  177;  on  deozidation  in 
nature,  802  ;  on  pseudomdrphfsm,  287, 
290,  298,  294,  823,  825;  his  plutonic 
basis,  294. 
Bismuth,  occurrence  of,  200,  217. 
Bittems   related    to  minerai    waters 
108, 106,  lOa,  114, 117,  121, 186,  168. 
Bltumens,  8, 169,  176»  882,  897.     iS«e 

Petroleum. 
Bituminous  rock»,     8ee  Pyroeobists. 
Blake,  W.  P.,  on  Lanrention  yelns. 

215,  218. 
Bluo  RIdge,  gneisses  of,  217,  240;  their 
décomposition,    260;    their    copper 
: reins.  217.  260. i 


iBIum  on  psendomorphism,  287,  819. 

826.  ' 

Bohemia,  copper  slates  of,  282  ;  geology 
*  of,  868. 

Borates,  their  origin,  16, 112, 146. 
borax-lake,  water  of,  146. 
Bosanquet,  Ontario,  pyroschists  of,  179. 
Bothwell,  Ontario,  water  of,  169,  162. 
Bottger  on  nitrification,  472. 
Boue  on  metamorphism,  24,  821. 
Brainard,  J.,  on  silicious  deposits,  89. 
Braintree,  Mass.,  Paradoxides  of,  406. 
Bray  Head,  rocks  of,  882. 
Brazil,  crystalline  rocks  of,  278;  their 

decay,  10, 
Breaks  in  palsBozbic  séries,  268,  876  - 

877,412-416,418. 
Breislak  on  the  origin  of  sulphur,  87, 
Brines,  analyses  of,  119-121. 
Brlttany,  crystalline  sohists  of,  278, 
Bromine  in  waters,  142. 
Brooks,  T.   B.,  crystaUine   rocks   of 

Michigan,  274. 
Brunswick,  Maine,  granité  veins  of. 
194.  ' 

Buch,  Von,  on  dolomites,  81,  80». 
Buffon  on  monntains,  52. 
Bunsen  on  eruptive  rocks,  8,  66,  284  j 
on  aqueous  décomposition  of  silicates. 
102.  ^ 


CAERNARYoïrsHiRB,  Crystalline  rocks 
of,  260,  868,  888. 

Galciferous  sand-rock,  a  dolomite,  117, 
166,  416;  gypsum  in,  117, 156  ;  its  re- 
lations to  Trenton  and  Chazy,  4U, 
418. 

Cagniard  de  la  Tour  on  vapors,  87. 

Calcium,  cbloride  of,  in  waters,  117- 
120,  168. 

Calcium,  salts  of.  Bee  Carbonate  of 
lime,  Lime-salts,  and  Gypsum. 

Caledonia,  Ontario,  waters  of,  128, 127. 
M«,  147-149. 

Oalifomia,  borax-lake  of,  146, 

Calumet  and  Heola  miqe,  conglomerate 
of,  187. 

Cambrian  séries,  266-269;  Upper,  in 
Oreat  Britain,  860  r  866  ;  Middle  and 
Lower,  865-886,    409;     in   North 


America,  887 .^ia6(  htotoy  irf,  84>r 


i.âite.- 


rjc    j  -^     fif-rr  r-^-*^   Tf^ 


r*-"!,  \ 


INDEX. 


,477 


Cambro^UurUa  of,^gwlck.  863. 881. IChabazlte,.442;  action  of  sdino  water. 
f!o„»j. ,-_._,  on,  06. 


Canada  goological  survey.  report»  oF, 

Cape  Anii,.M««g.,  gianite  voii»  of.  200. 
t-ape  Breton,  water  of,  121. 
Caradoc  rocks,  853,  859-862,  884. 
*  ""^I»   ' '**  P"mi«ve  condition,  «8.  42 

«02  î  anthracîtic  of  Madoc.  217. 
qwbonates.  /  See  Carbonate  of  Un». 

Carbonile  of  magnegia,  Carbonate 

of  soda,  and  Carbonio  acid  v 

Carbonate  of  lime,  it&.  origin.  2.  23 

«,47,  81.  83.  86.  88,  90.  109; 'soS: 

Of,  189;  bicarbonate,  its  action  on 
.   Ma-water,  82,  85,  00.  109.  808;  hv 
drous  carbonate  of.  140 

'^DoCr''^^'"'"'^-^-    ^" 

^ïfT^/  "»«"«»<».  «to  origin,  28, 
82,  85,  88.  90,  109.  110;  action  of,  on 
hme^lts,  87,  90,  139;  its  solubility 
and  snpersatnrated  solutions  of,  140 
148;  bicarbonate  of,  its  solubility.  9l', 
109,148;  hydrous  carbonate  of,  prés- 
ent in  some  dolomites,  1Ô7;  sesqui- 
carbonate  of,  188. 

^'^^'^  "*'  **^  '^  *>'*«*•>»  Ï2.  21. 
85,  102;   amount  of,   in  wnters,  86, 

124-126;  nentral  carbonate  of,  148; 

action  of,  on  sea-waters,  2, 11. 12  41 

86,88.90.106.139,148,807. 


,     -,  — .   »„„.  i„„,   i,o^  ,,„^. 

Carbonio  acid.  its  action  on  silicates, 
3,  10,  102,  160;  amount  of,  in  early 
.  ftoosphere,  41,  47,  808;  dcoxldà- 
tion  of,  28,  42,  802;  deflciency  of,  in 
certain  waters,  149;  relations  of,  to 
life  and  dimate,  42,  46-48;  to  the 
formation  of  gypsum.  42.  808;  snb. 
terranean  sources  of,  8,  16,  112. 

Càrbonfferous  rock»,  228{.of  lîorth 
America.  40.  60..  " 

Car^n-»par8.  their  con«tltntion,  441. 

Carlgbad,  water»  of,  86. 
Camalllte,  106,  107. 118. 
Cassltèrite,   191,   192,  196,  200,  206; 
psendomorph»  of,  289,  290, 


on,  96. 

Chacomao  <m  the  nebular  hypothesi». 
88.  ' 

Chambly.  water»  of.  126, 149. 162. 
Champlain  division,  262,  258,  264,  266. 
Chamonix.  jurassic    rock»    <jf.    888; 

synclinal  of.  848. 
Chatham,  Ontario,  water  of.  146. 
Chazy  formation,  156. 414,  415;  absent 
m  Herkimer  Co.,  New  York,  418; 
relations  of,  to  Calciferous  and  Tren- 
ton,  412;  minerai  water»  from,  124. 
166, 157.  ^ 

Chemical   change   defined,  428,  460, 
454,  466;  élément».  87.  428;  activil 
"ties  in  former  âges.  27,  42,  806;  dis- 
sociation, 86. 
Chemistry  defined,  464. 
Cheshire  rock-éalt,  120. 
Chiastolite  rocks.    See  Andalnsite. 
Chicago,  oil-bearing  limestone  of,  172. 
Chlorideof  calcium  in  water»,  122, 168; 
in  Brimeval  océan,  11,  117,  122,  187.' 
Chlorldeof  magnésium,  117,  122, 187. 
Chloride  of  sodium,  its  origin,  2, 11. 41 
Chlorine  in  silicates.  144,  242. 
Chlorine  and  hydrogen,  union  of,*|B0. 
Chlorite,  its  probable  origin,  296. 
Chloritic  rocks,  82,  248,  247,  249,  269 
270,  880,  381,  408;  supposed  pseudol 
morphic  origin  of,  816,  820,  826. 
iChloritoid  rocks.  32. 


Chromium.  its  occurrence.  81.  82  84 
288,  248,  249,  269,  270,  272.  297.  880! 

Chrysolite  and  serpentine,  291.  815. 

Chrysoberyl.  196.  214. 

Circulation,  terrestrial.  22, 226,  286. 

Classification  of  the  sciences,  86,  468. 

Clay».  origin  of.  2.  10.  13.  20.  22,  41, 
101,228;  precipitated  by  »aline  wa- 
ter». 10. 

Climate.  primeval,  42,  46-48;  palso- 

lolo  of  North  America,  76,  02,  SIC 
Cloez  on  nitrification,  466,  471. 
Coal.  it»  origin,  180. 182.  220;  ito  rel». 

tion  to  iron^res.  220. 
Collingwood.  Ontario.  pyPo»chi»te  ot, 


pwuaomorpn»  Of,  289, 290.  173  ,  rj"^^ 

«—uy,  00,  «7.  ICondenaed  type»  in  chemiitHr  à 


\1 


iCondemod  type»  in  chemistry,  468. 


1    itr-'jfe^V.'is 


478 


nÏDEX. 


Concentration  of  metals  in  nature.  227 
286.  ' 

Concretionary  stmotore,  89. 
'  Connecticut,  gneisses  of,  248. 

Conocephalites  in  Nortli  America,  260 
891,404. 

Continent,  ^pre-palaBozoic,  76,  76. 

Continental  élévation,  68,  76. 

Connlaria,  a  pliosphatic  shell,  812. 

Cooke,  J.  P.,  on  allotnerism,  447. 

Cooling  globe,  its  cliemistry,  1,  88,  40. 
60,  68,  801,  806. 

Coos  group,  282. 

CoppeiM)res,  origin  of,  282:  of  Biue 
fiidge,  217. 

Coprolites,  162,  226. 

Cordier  on  limestones  and  dolomites,  81. 

Corundum,  247;  its  snpposed  trans- 
formations, 826. 

Cotta,  Von,  on  granitic  veins,  191. 

Credner,  H.,  on  Eozoio  rocics  of  Nortli 
America,  277  j  on  comparative  geog- 
nosy,  278;  on  tlie  origin  of  silicates. 
804,  806. 

Crinoids,  fossil,  injected  with  silicates. 
804.  ^ 

Croft,  H.,  on  varioiu  minerai  waten. 
180,  184,  146. 
"^X  Crust  of  the  earth,  1,  40,  60-64,  228; 
its  flexibility,  8, 16,  67,  72 fumiga- 
tions of,  67,  74;  its  dislntegration,  68. 


Crystalline  aggregation  of  matter,  806. 
Crystalline  rocks,  two  great  classes, 

288;   évidences  of  thelr  plastlcity, 

4;  how  formed,  24, 288;  évidences  of 

life  in,  18,  802. 
Crystalline  ichists,  relative  âges  of, 

19;  are  pre-Cambrian,  827;  origin 


Dana,  J.  D.,  on  the  flnidity  of  the 
earth's  interior,  66;  on  granité  veins, 
199;  on  psendomorphism,  287,  291, 
818,  819,  820-823;  on  régional  met- 
amorphlsm,  291,  820,  822;  on  équiv- 
alent volumes,  488. 
Danville,  Haine,  granité  veins  of,  197. 
Daubeny  on  volcanoes,  62. 
Danbrée^n  the  action  of  heated  wa- 
ters,  6;  on  the  attrition  of  rocks.  20; 
on  the  waters  of  Plombières,  26;  on 
the  production  of  silicates,  26,  297; 
on  silicious  deposits,  89;  on  régén- 
ération of  feldspar,  100;  on  granitic 
veins,  191,  209;  on  the  origin  of 
crystalline  schists,  801;  on  the  pri- 
meval  atmosphère,  801. 
Davy,  H.,  on  volcanoes,  62. 
Dawson,  J.  W.,  on  dlssolving  of  iron- 
oxide  from  .sédiments,  18  ;  pu  the 
origin  of  coal,  180-182;  on  Eoeoon 
Canadense,  802  ;  bn  palaeozolo  for- 
aminifera,  411  ;  on  the  geology  of 
Nova  Scotia,  408;  on  Erian  rocks, 
419;  on  Gambrian  and  Silurian,  424. 
Dead  Sea,  water  of,  88. 
Décomposition,  double,  in  chemistry. 
428, 461.  "" 

Décomposition  of  crystalline  rocks,  its 
,>ntiquity,  10, 100,  260. 
Delabeche  on  crystalline  rocks,  801. 


Delesse,  A.,  on  envelopment  of  min- 
erais, 288,  289,  814,  816;  on  psendo- 
morphism,  292,  814-818;  his  change 
of  views,  816;  on  the  origin  of  ser- 
pentine, 816,  817;  on  protogine,  880. 

Deoxidation  in  nature,  28,  280,  802. 

Deville,  H.  Ste.-Claire,  on  dissociation, 


nf    !»tn«   .nn»,..j      iT    ,       "     "^'""""'»  "•  "'«--«-"Mre,  on  mssociatlon, 
D  Jrle'  or»^,^ r.<im'    lit:     fj.  -  r^-ate™,  84;  on  crystal! 


Danbrée  on,  801;  Gùmbel  on,  806; 

Credner  on,  806;  Favre  on,  847. 
Crvstals,    rounded,    212;    holtow    or 

skeleton,  201,  212. 
Cumberland,      England,      crystalline 

schists  of,  278. 
Cyanite  rockp,  28,  84,  248,  «72. 
Cycles  in  sédimentation,  166,  24L 


Dalhait  on  trilobites,  866. 
Damonr,  A.,  action  of  water  on  seo- 
Ute».103;  onjadeite,44a. 


line  aggregation,  806. 

Diabase,  81. 

Diagenesis  In  rocks,  806.^17,  821. 

Differentiation,  chemIcal,  460. 

Dlkes,  dlstingnished  fW)m  veins.  198. 
202,  --.    -, 

DIorite,  28,  96,  82,  186,  S48,  247,  340, 

269,  270,  880,  881,  408. 
DisintegraUon  of  the  primitive  onut, 

68. 
Dissociation,  chemIcal,  87. 


c  .s     VUv  ^  *iP*   ^  ^  fit(_. 


.MH^iLi 


"if  "i^" 


.^A 


V 


> 


INDEX, 


479 


V. 


Dolerite,  8,  as,  284;  stratlform  .trao- 
turc  in,  186.  %  """ 

Dolomleu,  deoay  of  granité,  10 

of,  with  and  withont  gypsnm,  87,  88, 
809;  fresh-water,  88;  metaUiferous, 
88,  809;  is  not  decomposed  byim)- 
snm,  106;  with  hydrate  and  hyd^ 
carbonate  of  magnesia.  107;  organicl 
«mains  in,  88,  92;  artiflcial  forma- 
tion of,   90,  91,   807;  produi 
evaporation  in  closed  basins, 
88,  92,   101,  810;  relation 
bonic  acid  in  the  atmosphenjuijiM 
formation,  48,  808;  supposed  epigenic 
orlgin  of,  81,  92,  287,  807,  «25  ;  Cor 
dier  on,  81;  Von  Morlot  and  Mariff- 
nac  on,  808;  Von  Bach  on,  81,  809: 
Waidtnger  on,  826. 
^"/K"'»  Ireland,  crystaUine  rocks  of. 

Dropg,  Guthrie  on,  10. 

Duallsm  in  chemical  theory,  «8  ' 

Dublin,  Ireland,  granité  veins  of^  199 

260***^'  '^""*"'  °*'PP«"«'M  of.  217, 
Dnmas  on  chemical  types,  462 
Damont  on  distnrbed  strata,  884. 
Dnrocher  on  igneons  rocks,  8,  189. 190 
Dynamical  gepiogy,  «orne  polnti  in," 


Earth  compared  to  an  oi^janism,  286; 

l"  «  L*""  '^''*'*''«''  "l^W  or  solid 
?'f«'f.<*.M.«».60,70,7l;Itsre: 
lation  to  magnetlsm,  60.  B«e  Crast 
of  the  earth. 
Eaton,  Amos,  classification  of  rocks. 
841;  on  the  rocks  of  Vermont,  241, 

EbJnUn,  decay  of  siliolous  minenUs, 

Eichhom  action  of  saline  watew  onl 
S,  9e"   '^'"°'°°°'  *"»"«  «Uloates,' 

Elœolite  in  granitio  velus,  200. 

Eléments,  chemical,  distribatfôrdr, 
Ml;  in  other  worW»,  «e,  pouiblê 
new  ones  In  BtJrs,  87. 

EtevRtloa  of  oonilnento.  18, 17.  n»  7« 


rock»,  6,  190;  on  sHlcions  depôsite, 
89,  <m  granitio  yeins,  189;  on  ter- 
«Mtrial  oironlation,  2263  on  Alpine 
geology,  882,  848. 
Emerald  veins  of  New  Gr»nada,  206 
Emery,  origin  and  occurrence  of,  18 
08.  ' 

Emmons,  E.,  on  romided  crystils,  212- 
on  eruptive  limestones,  218;  on  the' 
Breen  Momitains,  260;  on  serpen- 
tine, 250;   on  the  Taconic  svstem 
2M-268,  268,  888r890;   on'Cam^ 
brian,  268;  on   hypersthene   rock, 
279;  on  recomposed  rocks,  «41;  on 
the  geology  of  New  York,  868 
Endogenons  rocks,  198, 196  - 199. 
Envelopment   of  minerais,  288 1 290 
814.  ,  ' 

Eophyton,  885,  409. 
Eozoio  rocks  of  North  America,  76 
277.  • 

Eoroon  Canadense,  802,  808,  826,  841 
<   411  ;  E.  Bavaricam,  868. 
Epidermal  tissues,  their  relaUons  to 

coal,  181. 
Epidotic  rocks,  82.  248,  249, 408. 
Epigenesis,  286,  818,  817 
EquUlbrium  of  pressure,  16,  76. 
tjquivalent  volumes,  488,  486,  440 
hl  *lt°*  ^«'«ht,  of  oxygen  and  car- 
non,  176;  of  compound  species,  482. 
<41;  deflned,  465.  ^     -,       , 

Erian  rocks,  419. 

Erosion  as  related  tomountains,  62,  74 
Eruptive  rocks.  Sm  Exotic  rocks.  ' 
Mmark  on  norites,  279.  ^-^ 

Essex  Oounty.New  York,  mités  ot, 

Enphotide,  880,  834,  446. 

Enrhlzene  of  Laurent,  467. 

EvaMjt»  petrolenm.  174  ^^ 

Iff-IM,  284;  banderstructuro  fa, 
186;  tocalattefiiUon  by,  208. 


"AHiaWS,  2ir.  , 

Pâirhalm  9n  relations  of  pressure  to 
nision,  80.  •■••■-....,, 


:â 


^Bê«,montou  y>^^,^^^^  ,^^  ^,^  ^^^  ^^ 


'i!'. 


i^Ê^^im^&^^>^s^,'J^ï%^t.)fXi3i^k^iimt>*,x.  m. 


.,rf-,- 


-m 


f 


.X,     h^   I 


480 


INDEX. 


Faalis  in   strata,  related.  to 

springs,  164, 157.      < 
Favro,  Alph.,  on  the  geology  of  the 

Alps,  828  ;  on  metamorphism  in  the 

Alps,  842,  847. 
^  Favre  and  Silbermann,  thermo-chemi 

cal  researches,  486. 
Faye,  «Bnstitution  of  the  snn,  87.      ,/ 

■  Feldspar-porphyries,  187,  248, 260, 182. 
Feldspars,  their  formation,  6,  26,  27, 

100;  decay  of,  101;  triclinio,  81,  67, 
279,  448  ;  aqaeoâs  origin  of,  298, 299  ; 
constitution  and  formulas  of,  448. 

Feldspathldes,  446.  * 

Festiniog  group,  868,  871,  87iai,>|84. 

Fire-clays,  18,  22,  228. 

Fissures,  veins  lu,  202y  208,  288. 
^  Fitzroy,  water  of,  12*,  142, 162. 
.-    "  Flora,  fossil  pf  the  Alps,  888. 

Fluid-cavities  in  érystals,  66,  206. 

Flysch  of  the  Alps,  887. 

FnIdingB  in  strata,  17,  61,  66  -  67,  74. 

■  Fontainebleau  sandvtone,  289. 
|.     Foraminifera,  paIsBozoic,  411. 

Forchhammer  on  fucoids^  96;  on  alka- 

llne  snlphnrets,  99. 
Ford,  geology  of  Troy,  New  York,  407. 
Formulas  in  chemistry,  465. 
Foucou  on  native  hydrocarbon  gases, 

182. 
Fonquë  on  native  hydrocarbon  gases 

182. 
Foumet    on    knolinization,    100;   on 

granités,  190;  on  skeleton  crystals, 

^01  ;  on  veins,  202. 
Fucoids,  geological  relations  of,  2,  22, 

96,  144,  226. 
Fuflion,  when  affected  by  pressure,  66, 

66. 

Garnet  rock,  80. 

Gaspë,  geology  of,  406,  416„\|Bj 

Gas  springs,  hvdrocarbon,  8,  112, 181, 

182. 
Gostaldl,  geology  of  the  AIJ»,  847. 
Gny-LuRsne,  law  of  volumes,  488. 
Gélatine,  formula  and  constitution  of, 

180. 
Qeneratlon  of  chemical  species,  437, 

465. 
- — iîeneseeriate%  pyroachisti,  17fl> 


minerai  Genth,  F.  A.,  on  gpm  deposits,  287;  on 
cor)indum,  826: 

Oeognosy,  340;  g»mparstive,  88,  84, 
27^ 

edogical  relations  of  minerai  waten, 
164, 156. 

Geology,  its  scope  and  objects,  289. 

Georgia,  Vermont,  fossils  of,  891,  894, 
402. 

Gèrhai'dt  on  types  in  chemistry,  462, 
468  ;.  on  batsic  salts,  467. 

Gi^bs,  Wolcott,  pn  tiie  vater-type  in 
chemistry,  468. 

Giekie  on  the  geology  of  Skye,  281; 
on  Cambrian  and  Sllurian,  424. 

Glaciation  of  rocks,  10. 

^ass  Bo(tened  by  heated  water,  6. 

(^uconite,  relation  of  to  potasb,  2, 

■  18,  186;  in  organic  forms,  803. 

Glucose  and  sea-ealt,  compound  of,  441. 

Gneiss  defitted,  188  ;  gr^nitoid,  186, 
188,  206,  248;  Laurentian,  206,  243  ; 
White  Mountain,  188,  244,  282;  of 
the  Appalachians,  244  -  260  ;  of  Nova 
Scotia,  408  ;  primitive  of  Scandi- 
navia,  469. 

Goderich,  salt^wells  of,  304. 

Goethe,  287. 

Gold,  in  Madoo,  Ontario,  217;  its  solu- 
tion and  déposition  in  nature,  233, 
287;  in  sea-water,  287,  288;  of  North 
Wales,  888;  of  Noya  Scotia,  408. 

Gothiand.  geology  of,  866. 

Granité,  decay  of,  10;  not  a  primitive 
rock,  48;  substratum  of,  unknown, 
88,  48;  intervention  of  water  in  its 
formation,  6,  66,  189-191;  deflned, 
188;  an  intmsive  rock,  88, 188;  strat- 
iform  structure  in,  186;  graphie, 
196;  its  origin.    iSee  Exotic  rocks. 

Granités  of  New  England,  186, 188;  of 
New  Brunswick  and  Italy,  ^01;  of 
the  Alps,  881. 

Granitio  vein-etones,  188,  189-209; 
their  aqueous  and  concretionary  ori- 
gin, 88,  192,  199;  banded  structure 
of,  198  ;  mineralogy  of,  200,  210; 
Laurentian,  88,  208;  of  White 
Mountain  séries,  194  ;  of  Sherbrooke, 
Nova  SootiA,  and  of  Biddeford,  Maine, 


INDE3C 


481 


a«,  248;  in  aerolites,  801. 

Gra»  on  Alpine  gflWogy,  888. 

'^'^^'^  *'<^«1.  8W;  of  Québec 
«««,897, 401.  wneoec, 

Oreen  Mountain  rock»,  18,  89,  881  841 
248,849,274.  i  — i  «S  Ml, 

.Grenatidos,  446. 

Greni^e,  Québec,  mlnemb  of.  816- 
section  of  Chaxy  at,  414.         '        ' 
Gipton,  Conneçticut,  gnmite  ot,  186, 
Grove  on  disMciation,  87. 
Grtlner  on  filUng  of  vein»,  808.    ' 
Guano,  deposits,  82«. 
Gnelph  formation,  417.       '    ' 
^^^u?°  ^'^  808,  8045*n  met». 

genesis,  806, 821.  ^         J 

Gothrie  on  drops,  lo. 

Gypsum,   origin  of,  48.  8«   âfl.  ♦-„ 
modes  offonnatloUtlio'.  JJ'    W 
carbonate  of  Un.,  ^d  .iptte"; 

inagnesia,88,  86-87,  90,  109;  inteî. 
vention  of  carbonio  acid  in  its  pro- 
dnoUon,  48,  808;  its  action  on  «oils 
,Ii  f°?  °°*  decompoM  dotomite.' 


w.  .1:    '2?"  Brunswick,  406.         ^ 
^lt?74!^'^'  ^*^'  î^  o'. 
Haughtoa  on  the  norites  of  Skye.  881. 
H^t  fatemal,  of  tlie  oârtl,,  7,  9Vi6  i 
67,69.66,71,72.77,78:  '    '     '  **' 
Heer  O.,  fowU  flora  of  the  Alps.  888. 

h1^^'^     ^««I^erHelderberg. 
Henne.«,y  on  the  éarth's  crust,  7, 1^ 

Herkfan«.County.NewYork,'ge;,logy 

Herschel,  J.  F.  W..  on  volcanic  phenom-' 
ena,  8,  16, 44, 68.         i     ■  • 

««.aV^"^  ««.iogy.  878,878. 

Hlsinger.  geplogyof  Scandlnïvia,  860; 

H^hcock.  C.  H.,  geotogyif  the  Whita.  ' 
Hountain8,.a82.  -, 

"Jj;!'*'^  New  Jersey,  «mHJntines  of, 

Hofitaiann^on  Eozoon,  808. 
Homologom  or  progressive  séries  la 

che,ni8tiy,  481,  480,  448. 
Hoosio  Mountain,  Emmons  on,  860. 


S  yf!^K^°h.'?,!^'îi"«».  _»».  Ho°«««  o»  o«,nC;71. 


146;  offtwh-water  origin.  87,;  in  Call 
ciferonswndHwck.  117, 166;  in  Onon- 
Jwa  formation.  188  ;  in  ciystaU|ne 
schlsu  in  Sweden,  886;  in  tertiiy 
in  the  Alp.,  846.    -SeeAnhydrite. 


«r    J*°>"o«onpiendomorphlsm,884. 
^    Hall  James,  on  souroesofpatooMic 

•«llnjent.    49;  on   monàtataTil? 

68-68.  78; on  White Mountain rooka. 

871.- on  Potsdam  rocks,  889;  on  New 

York   geology,    887,  889,  404;   on 


How  on  minerai  waters^  181. 

Hudson  River  gronp,  262. 266, 288. 896. 
897,  898,  402,  408;  minerai  watei^ 
from,  116.  184, 166: 

Huggins,  fais  spectroscopio  studie^  86. 

Humboldt  on  granités,  loo. 

Huronian  rocks.  18,  89,  248.  869.  271 
*U;  their  identity  wiUi  the  Urs- 
cheifer,  869.  Bee  Gne^  Mountain 
séries. 

Hntton  on  metamorphism,  34;  oo  pri- 

nuuy  scbists,  888.  ~ 

M'^?[bon  gaies,  fl,m,  Ml,  Ma. 


^ 


J, 


Pl-orio  «iomei,l!ltaLTl9.  r?  «  "l^"  ~"^  '*•  ^"n'"  <"^ 

^  "»  1*1  44:  in  minar&l  xnt^r.  iii 


0»  16,  44;  in  minerai  waters,  111. 


lîlf. 


■  :..a3/«p'  'hA^.i  A 


4rf^ 


482 


IKDIEX. 


Jkrf^ 


» 


HypenthaM  9kk  or  hypttiM^,  81, 

V9-MV    âMNoritw. 
Hypoloio  racks,  M6, 840. 


loENTmoATtoir,  ehantioal,  460. 
Idocnse,  hollow  Ofystal  of«  tU. 
Igneoos  rookfl,  theory  o{,l,Z,i,  6.   fie* 

Ezotio  rooks. 
IndIg«iMMifl  lookf,  M,  108. 
Intonal  heat .  0m  Heftty  iirteniàL 
InterpeneUattoit   la   dumUtiy,  418, 

460. 
iDTwted  itraU  In  tte  Alpa,  884,  887; 

ftt  Trof,  New  Toik,  407  {  tt  QiulMè, 

418. 
lodate  of  oalolam  in  aefr-vater,  S87l 
lodin*  in  minerai  watoTB,  148;  its  reltr 

tion  to  eaithy  sedlmentt,  148,  8S6; 

In  M»-water,  148,  tM,  887;  SonsUdt 

on,  387. 
Idlto  or  diohnite,  18;  «nd  up^IoUto, 

816;ftftJdfl{Mthide,446. 
^  Ifon  in  mtnanU  veters,  188, 14S. 
\Iron  ores,  origin  of,  10, 18,  98, 88~8l, 
\  »7,  Sa7«t80,  248;  «re  •▼idences  of 
\  life,  18, 803  ;  relations  of,  to  miMta] 
\  coal,  229.    Be»  Bauxite. 
Ii^n  pyrite*,  origin  «f,  280,  388. 
Isomorphism,  483,  440  ;  its  relations  to 

pseudomorplilsin,  816  ;   polyueiio, 

Ul,  81A,  818,  448. 

JAoâaoïr,  Gba&lu  t.,  ùa  th*  WUto 

MoJ|ntB|ns,  841, 276. 
Jade  àpd  jadeito,  446,  448. 
Jollyte,888. 
'Joly,  wftterof,  U«.   ■. 
Jttkes,  J.  B.,  on  i)gbnntains,  74;  on 
Gambilan  and  SUorian,  424. 

KAlrr  on  ohemical  anion,  428,  460. 
Kaolin,  its  formation,  10, 90-101,  446 
Kefersteln,  C,  on  ignaons  rooks  aod 

voloanoes,  16,  62,  71,  77;  cm  Mont 

Blan<i,838. 
Klng  and  Bowney  on  peeudomorphism, 

886. 
Kinneknlle,  Sweden,  gooiogf  of,  887. 
Kolbe  on  oheniiori  types,  460. 
Kopp,  H.,  on  eqnival«ak  TolutiM,  4t», 


LA  Bao  imtFebvbi,  «mt«n  oT,  134. 
Labrador,  geology  of,  261,  808. 
Labradorito  roeks,  8»,  81,  88,  «7, 878.^ 
281.    iSisNorlaaTCcks. 

Lake  Eltt»,  i^rater  of,  88. 

Lambêrtrille,  New  Jen^,  «mptiTe 
rocks  of,  186. 

LiUMnie,wsft«rof,  128.      '      ° 

Laurent,  A.,  on  divisibility  of  Ibnmilas, 
481;  oo  isou^rpUsm,  422;  anoiieia» 
loal  types,  468. 

Làarentian  séries,  20,,  80,  806;  «ri- 
denca^of  Uft  In,  802;  emptive  rooka 
of,  88;  Tein-atones  of,  208  «218. 

Lanreiitian,  Vppar.    Sm  Norian. 

Lanrentides,  248. 

Lanzon  fonnittïui,  268,  401,  411,  418. 

LeGonto,  Joseph,  <m  dyaamio  g0ology, 
70-76. 

Leonkard  od  emptiva  limastooas,  318.- 

Larsch,  Hydro-Gfaamte,  133. 

Lesley,  J.  P.,  on  moontains,  68,  68;  on 
an  apparent  disoordanoe  in  k>wer 
palaozoio,  414. 

Lethaa  Snecics,  860. 

Lenoito,  67,101, 310. 

Leris  fimnatk»),  260,  401,  418;  its 
fanna,  411,  413,  416. 

Leymerie  ontheorlgin  of  limestoms,  82. 

Liassio  AmsIIs  in  veins,  808. 

Lignites,  178, 177, 181. 

Lima-salts  in  the  modem  ooaaa,  107, 
117, 110;  In  aneiant  océans,  S,  11, 41, 
83, 108, 109, 117;  in  minerai  waters, 
188.  Sté  Carbonate  of  UnM  and 
Carbonate  of  magnesia. 

Lime,  sUloatas  of,  81, 161, 162. 

Lima-aoda  fUdq>ars,  their  possible  ori- 
gin,  97.    8te  Feldspars,  triolinio. 

Limestonas,  Lanrentlan,  306;  of  Whito 
Mountain  sérias,  196,  344;  snppoaed 
emptive,  3;^8  ;  origin  of,  82, 811  ;  rela- 
tions of,  to  oTganio  life,  811.  S«ê 
Oartxmato'Oflime. 

Umonita,  organlo  mattar  in,  88. 

Lingnk»,  a  phosphatio  shell,  818. 

Lingnla  flags,  266,  870,  871,  874. 

Liquida,  equivaleot  volume  of,  486. 

Logea,  W.  £.,  on  Uppar  Laureatiai^  -  ~ 
89,  879;  on  the  AppalaoUaas,  187; 
«B  iha  Whtta  lioîâaai^  Sferor^ 


..^i^^i^ 


jxjmi. 


JowerptIjBOjsoie  rockt,  362 1  on  the 
geology  of  Québec,  866-268,  897- 
8W  ;  on  the  Québec  gronp,  269, 26«. 
264,  401,  408  ;  on  the  geology  of  Verl 
"î*^»-^.»»*;  ongeologiorinoiaon. 
ototure  in  Cwuida,  420. 

laire,  WBten  of,  84. 

hoagmjad  rocks,  266,  880,  882. 

Loraine  ehales.  8ee  Hiwjaoo  Blver 
group. 

I<«y  on  the  geologj  of  tbâ  AIp^  m, 

J«wer  HelderbeiK  rocl»,  «fi,  418. 
i^wer  Fvisozok»  formation»,  ohuaiflca- 

tMnot,  267  j  taboJar  vlew  of,  886. 
I-udlow  rocks,  868,  861,  862,  4J8. 
l-uxenU,  watwof,  206. 
Lycopodium,  spores  of,  181. 
Lyell,  a,  on  thfl  esose  of  pUcat., 

strata,  66;  on  Mont  Blanc,  888. 


483 


Mac«olu)ch  on  hypetsthene 

Mac&rlane,  T.,  ob  Hnrontan  ne 
18,  269,  274}  on  the  plutOQic  ori 
of  crystalllne  schists,  294.  ' 

Macvicar  on  the  constitution  of  mlû- 
oral  specles,  467.  f 

JJadoc,  gold  and  oarbonof,  217. 
Magnesian  maris,  jse  Sepiolite  ;  mi- 
ca,  207;  silicates,  fomimOon  ot  21. 
,122,  161,  296,  297,  800.  ^      ' 

Hagneslte,  88,  00,  248. 
Uagnesium  salts  fa  mhieral  watera 
187, 188;  ohlorida  ot,  117,  118;  snl' 
Ph«*e  of,  106,  108,  11»,  184.    âeej 
Carbonate  of  magnesia. 
l**8notio  inn  ore,  In  vein-stooes,  214' 
Teins  In,  216.    Se*  lion  oPes.  ' 

*»8n«tt»in,  its  relation  to  the  «urtii's 

«ntorior,  60, 61. 
MaUet,  R.,  on  fatenud  heat,  78  ;  <»  toI- 
o«nle  rock»,  7».  ^ 

IWwn,  geok>gy  of,  860,  878, 888. 
««■««««••.  rebutons  of,  to  végétation, 

W  ;  fa  waters,  142. 
Hanitoolfa  Uand,  «àter  ot  168. 
Marble8<ifVenjicnt,8H. 
IfuDon,  J.,  on  Taoonio  rock»,  26L 
jMrignao  on  «faiomitas,  809, 


MBÎSésiltatatôcki^ïOS. 


Maris,  magnesian.    -Ses  Seploliu. 
Manbgas^origmof,  m,  182;  rebttion 

of,  to  radiant  beat,  46. 
Mather  on  limeatones,  218;  oa  Taconle 

rocks,  264.  -—. 

Ifatinal  rocks,  421. 
Matter,  its  chemical  history,  426,  466. 
Matthews,  0.  F.,  geology  ofUew^Bnin». 

wick,  407. 
Meionite,  446,  446. 

Melting.p<Ait,  rriotton  of,  to  prènure, 

7,  89,  60,  66. 
Menevian  rocks,  266,   871-878;  fa 

North  America,  886,,  407. 
Metagenesis  fa  chemistiy,  427,  466. 
Metallifepou»  depositg,  orlgfa  of,  28, 

Metals  fa  sea^water,  28L 
Metamoiphio  rocks,  objections  to  the 

term,  18;  chemistry  of,  18. 
Metamorpfaism  of  rocks,  9, 18. 19  24. 

^  «8.  286,  287,  291, 298-800,  806-807, 
817,  820;  not  to  be  confoonded  with   , 
PModwnoiphism,  24,  291  ;   Hutton 
and  Bonë  on,  24, 821;  Dana  on,  291, 
820;  Credner  and  Gifaibel  on,  806; 
Favre  on,  842, 847  ;  Naumann  on.  26 
298,  296,  822,  828;  local,  18,  84-26 
296,298,299,807.  ' 

Metamorphosls  of  rocks,  snpposed,  il- 
fastratlons  of  the  doctrine.  287. 
824-826.  ^         ' 

Matamorphoeis  fa  themistry,  427,  466. 

Meteorio  stones,  «onsUtntion  of,  802. 

Micas,  conditions  of  their  formation,  28; 

ma|ne8iaii,  ofLanrentlan  séries,  207. 
Mica^chists,    28,  82,  207,  844-247 

»2,  282,  826,  881!  868,'  m,  „Z 

poeed  peeudomorphio  origin  of,  8261 
Miofalgan,  crystalline  rock»  of,  274.     . 
MIneratogy,  its  }»rovface,  468;  classlA- 

eation  in,  464. 

"«?  w'^Çe  ""*^  **''^°'  '^*^'  ****^ 
Mixtures  In  mfaeral  specles,  444. 
MotasseoftheA]ps,846. 
Montalban  rock»,  194, 282.    âeaWhlte 

Mountafa  séries. 
MontarvUIe,  dolerite  of,  186. 


881;  «ayrtallfa.  «ok»  o<;  880. 


èi(4i(8^fe'»«A*fe*^*'''.-^''     >'«*fe?rffe  .^'ifM.'^Mé-  .îM  .'Lfa.i  ,\iVj.i.J.' 


484 


INDEX. 


Mont  Cenis  Tunnel,  884,  847. 
MontloBier,  De,  on  monntain»,  69, 74. 
Montréal,  dolerite  of,  186, 198. 
Moore,  Charles,  on  liassic  foesils  In 

velns,  304. 

Morlot,  Von,  oi]k,4olomit«,  808. 

Moiintaing,6rigln  of,  4»,  61,  62, 78, 74; 

i     tjrnclinal  atnictiue  of,  846. 

iMud-volcanoea,  8. 

Morchison,  R.  I.,  on  geology  of  Soot- 

land,  371;  on  Silorian  nxîk»,  863, 

-    866,  878-880;  errors  of  his  Sllurian 

section^,  868,  883,  880;  on  geology 

of  the  Alp»,  887.  < 

Mnrray,  Alex.,  on  ge(dogy  of  New 

foondland,  406. 


NItrite  of  ammonla,  iti  formation,  47l. 
Nitrogen  gas,  a  nitryl,  464, 470. 
Nitrogen  of  volcano^,  8  ;  amonnt  of,  ta 

rocka,  118.  ^ 

Norian  rocks,  30,  81,  88, 1^8-383. 
Norites,  81,  88,  379;  olivine  in,  81, 380. 
Nova  ScoMa,  geology  of,  408,  40»,  41». 
Nucleus"of  the  eaTU^  7,  8»,  44, 66,  67, 

69-61,64.  . 


Natbolitb  and  orthoclase  associated, 

6, 103,  206. 
Natron-lakes,  12,  86, 146, 168. 
Nanmann,  C.  F.,  on  metamorphism, 

26,  298,  206,  882,  828;  on  envelop- 

ment,  292;  on  origin  of  crystalline 

ro«ks,  294;  on  pseudomorphiam,  292, 

820,  833. 
Nebnlar  hypothesis,  86,  88,  323.* 
Neolite,  396. 

Neptnnists  and  plntânists,  46.  ' 
Nerepis,  New  Branswlok,  granités  of, 

301. 
Nevada,  silicions  v^ins  In,  S04. 
Newberry,  J.  S.,  on  cycles  of  sedliûen- 

tatiop,  341;  on  geology  of  Ohlo,  416 
New  Bmnswick,  geology  of,  376,  407- 

409,  416. 
Newfonndland,  geology  of,  361,  376, 

406-410. 
New  Hampshire,  geology  of,  343,  881. 
Nefirport,  Rhodelsland,  geology  of,  349. 
New  York,  geological  sarvey  of,  887- 
-««lai;  System  ofifocks,  887,  889. 

— Jimestone;  417, 418;  of  Chicago, 


in  rocks,  81,  83,  84,  348,  347, 
369. 
Nicklès,  J.,  on  nitriflcation,  473. 
Nicol,  on  geology  of  Sootland,  371. 
Nloolet,  Québec,  water  of,  186. 
Nltiltes,  réduction  of,  94,;il8,  478. 
Nitre,  hollow  crystals  of,  218. 
NitriflcaMop.  theory  of,  464,  470.  ■ 


OoKAH,  primitive,  8,  II,  40, 41;.  pàlceo- 
Mic,  83, 104,»  108,  109,  119,  187,  168; 
evaporation  of  its  waters,  76,  88, 93, 
104,  ^07, 108,  810;  matais  in  watera 
of,  381,  387;  bromine  in,  143;  iodine 
iu,144,836,a87;potashin,  186.  8ee 
Carbonate  of  soda  and  Carbonate  of 
Hma.\ 
Oohi«,  tormation  of,  98, 828.    Ste  bon 

ores.  * 

Ohio,  brines  of,  120;  geology  of,  416. 
Oken,  mineralogioal  classification  of, 

464. 
Oleiferons  limeston*  of  Chicago,  178. 
Olivine,  in  norites,  81, 880.   iSeeChrys- 

oUte. 
Oneida  conglomerate,  416. 
Onondaga  formation,  166, 417,  418;  the. 
oldest  saiiferons  known,  119;  min- 
erai waters  trom,  168. 
Ontario,  petroleum  of,  168  - 171. 
Ophiolite.    8té  Serpentine. 
OrbicYila,  a  phosphatto  shell,  818. 
Or».âeposit8,  28, 288. 
Organic  and  inoi^puiio  bodies,  437, 468. 
Organio  life,  chemIcal  relations  of,  3, 
18,  83,  43,  96, 144, 336,  336, 381, 803, 
811, 813  ;  évidences  of,  in  crystiOlhie 
rock^  18, 808;  in  aerolites,  803. 
Oiganic  mattéra  in  waters,  94, 136, 168, 
168;   Chemical  relations  of,  19,  22, 
07-9». 
Orthoclase,  18,  101, 198,  8Ô6;  produc- 
tion of,  398,  899;  formula  of,  448. 
AarFeldspars,  Granités  and  Granitio 
veln^tones. 
Orthoi^yre,  187, 348, 860, 381 
Ottawa  basin,  geology  of,  418. 
Ottawa  Hiver,  water  of,  84, 136  ;  potash 
in,  186;  8ilicaiii,160;  silicate  of  lime 
from,  158.  — ! — 


'iK-^ 


lix;t£ln< 


INDEX. 


/ 


°T?°«  ^-  D.,  geologjr  of  Tnacomia, 

Oxyohloride  minerai»,  442. 
Oxygen,  équivalent  weight  of,  176. 481 

«otlve,  «M  Ozone. 
Oxone,  relation  of,  to  radiant  hekt  4«;  a 

Wjple  molécule,  464;  production  of. 

«0;  relation  of,  to  nltriflcailon,  47l! 


485 


^^%^f '^^'  *>  9,  a,  96,  7.2, 

Playfeir^ffld  Joule  on  équivalent  vol- 
ume», 484,  440,  467.      ■ 
Pllcation  of  pocka,  17,  66,  67,  79. 
Plombières,  *ater  of,  86,  206,  207. 
Plutonlo  origln  of  etratifled  rock»,  186 


Pai.a>troohis,  411.  / 

Palœozoïo  «ediment»,  origln>f,  10, 76. 

Palœorolo  formation,  of  si  LawAmce 

bMin,  164,  of  North  America  and 

£ngland,thickne88o0O,877;  tabn- 

.  7i'.r  l^"^""'  »*»•  -»"  Cambrian 
ud  Sllurian. 


Pa^awrolo  cllmate/  8ee  Ollmate. 
PalaBozolo  océan/  Bee  Océan. 
Paradoxldes  H^élanl,  406. 
Paragonite,  2^. 
Parâine»  o^petrolenm,  182. 
206.  ^"^•<°'*«°«»lan  sédiments  of, 

Pari»|lfalne,  granltio  veln  o£ 

touiataaiines  of  200.  212. 
Peat<04,i8i.  ' 

Pe>t>les  in  veins,  204. 
Çénnsylvania,  geology of,  246;  geologt. 

cal  survey  0^  420r  »  »™"«> 

Peristerite,  214. 
Perthite,214,444. 
Pe^alit^  210 1  formula  of,  448. 
Petrolla,  Ontario,  water»  of,  161. 

»ïïr/î,'  "i«J"'rf«««  wellsdf  in  Où. 

»Wo,m;of Chicago,  172-174;  An-     la»  --        --    • 

^  gase.  «ccom^ying,  iS^^^  Ph™  ?'  V'/*'  «"'  «<>*• 
PWlIIpli,  J.  A.,  .llioioS  «î^eit,  6f  Ne-  PriSîl'"  ""i""*^"'  «"•  *"' 

vad8,204.  ^™'''^*-^'2"°«"*'"»k«ofBarrande,266,8e8. 

PhUlips,  John,  on  Igneous  rocks.  8. 24  P.™  r*^"?""-  PrimordiaL 

66:  on  «vôb.  ^f  ?_~     "ï?."»  "»  **>  Progressive  séries  in  chemistry  489. 


Plutonlo  rpoks,  sedlmentary  oririn  of 
8  14  48,67,817.    -SeeiiotlcK 
Plutonlsts,  66;  andneptunists,  46. 

Polybasio  aclds,  their  genesi»;  464, 466. 

Polymerio  types,  464.   466;    isomor- 

phism.  ««elsoinorphism,  polymerio. 

Polymensm  in  minerai  epeciet^  446, 

^Ti5[*'fr?''";  ****'  «letonnination 
of,  164;  table  of,  166 

Poiphyry,  qnartzlferou».    Su  Ortho- 

10  Ji'o'A'  ''***yof«>mpoundsof; 
oo  ,.V^'  ""^  removed  from  océan, 
aV  W    144,  226;  m«,  in  ancient 

waters,  126, 186-187. 

368,880,408;  UpperandLower,266 
minerai  waters  fh)m,  166. 

S!!!î  *!°  S"  '«"«"'y  «'*e  earth.  44. 
ProcJ.Utlonof«Hllment..tafluence6f 

PwdMzite,  Its  relaUon  to  gypsum,  107, 


r-, ^  v,„  .guTOua  ^ock^  8,  24. 

•6;  on  rocks  of  Angle»ea.270- mol 
ogy  of  Malvem,  86of87MM.    ^ 

c«tr.ttonof.  226;  relation. toorgan. 

Phosphatlo  sheUs,  812. 
Phcphorio  «jlds,  genesis  of,  466. 
Phwphonu,  it.  dllltasion  In  nature. 


Protoglne  of  Mont  Blanc,  880,' 

Protozoio  rockft',.S64. 

Pseadomorphism  deflned,  24, 286-294; 
Dana  on,  987,  291,  819,  880,  892 
Delesse  on,  288,  292.  814-818;  Nàu- 
mann  on,  292,  829;  Scheerer  on,  991. 
898  ;  Warrington  Smyth  on,  818. 894  • 
iUnstrations  of.  894  -  826.  ' 

1PMPPeUy.R.,orthophyw.^ofMtownirip- 


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I 


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■^)^^lhf^is^^t^iXtxi>^tiu},t''  »^mi»  '<.â|ê&:  M>aî^!â'A 


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486 


IKDBX. 


.     ^ 


Pyrites,  Irod,  origlii  of,  ISO. 
Pyrognomic  minerais,  6. 
Pyrophyllite  rocka,  S8. 
PyroschUts,  160, 176-.ir». 
Pyroxene,  36, 186,  ai6i  116. 
PyroxanitM,  81, 307. 

QnABTZ,  Its  origin,  3;  conditiow- of 

çtystalUsatlon,  6,  004,  305;  cIuJm 

donio,  80;  cryëtalUna  sanda  ot,  80; 

veina  of,  103  >  104, 186, 108;  raonded 

crjratals  of,  318. 
Quartzite,  anppoaed  intmalva,  843. 
QuelMO,  geology  of,  36«  ^  3(0, 880,  880^ 

408  I  piobably  Invarted  laetioh  «t, 

418. 
Quabeo  gnmp,  V»,  360,  808,  401;  tto 

relation  to  the  Trenton,  418;  minanl 

waters  fh>m,  166. 
Qnincite,  306. 

Radicles  in  chemlstry,  438,  468,  467. 
Banuay,  A.  6.,  on  dolomites,  03;  oo 

stratigraphioal  breaks,  876  l  i 

geology  of  North  Walea,>74,  880, 

88i,  888. 
Bed  sandrock  of  Vermont,  360,  800, 

801,  804, 
Rivera,  waters  of,  84-86, 138^ 
Bocks,  poroeltyof,  108, 164;  sabaerlal 

decay  of,  8, 10, 41, 101-108;  reemn- 

poeed,  861,  386,  880,  841. 
Bogers,  H.  D.,  on  crygtallin«  nNsks  of 

Pennsylvania,  346;  on  Taoonic,  364; 

on  (^paMan,  874,  881,  433. 
Bogers,  H,  D.  and  W.  B.,  on  ffsdogy 

of  the  White  Monntains,  343, 376;  on 

nomenclatnre  of  paleeocoio  rùoks, 

430-483. 
Bogers,  W.  B.,  on  geology  of  Virginia, 

876;  on  protoioio  rocks  ia  Massa- 

cfansetts,  406. 
Boonded  crystals,  318,  318. 
Boyal  InstitQtion,  46. 
Bntlaad,  Vonont,  geology  of,  866. 


Saitobo  on  geology  of  Tennessee,  366. 
Saginaw,  Miehigan,  brines  of,  130. 
Salina  formation.    Se»  Onondaga. 
Salter,  J.  W.,  on  geology  of  Noith' 
Wales,  864,  868,  864,  871^  «78. 


Sait  «ells  «f  Godarieh,  Ontaria^  304. 

Sands,  silicloos,  orystalline  and  chalo»- 
donic,  80. 

SAU  lygoops,  89. 

Saratoga,  waters  o^  103, 14a. 

BauMuita,  446. 

Soaitdlnavia,  geokigy  of,  300,  36T,  368, 
^366w380,  876,  886.      . 

à»poUte,  88, 101,  810,  446. 

Sohaeffer,  G.  0.,  on  nitviflcatioa,  473. 

Schaerer,  Th.,  on  granités,  6,  66, 180; 
on  envelopment  of  minerais,  301  ;  on 
polymozio  isomorphism,  88},  816, 
818,  448. 

Schiel,  James,  on  pragiessive  sert)»  in 
chemlstry,  480. 

SchimbeiB  op  nitriflcatioa,  471. 

ScoUand,  Higtilands,  geology  of,  34, 
871,  878,  888.  ^ 

Çorope,  Ponlett,  on  water  in  igneoos 
rocks,  6,  66,  66,  100;  çn  volcataoes, 
60. 

Sea^alt,  its  origin,  8,  18;  its  dqMsi- 
tion,  76,  88,  86, 107,  MO,  810. 

Sea-water.    iSes  Océan. 

Sea-weed.    âfeeFncoids. 

Sedgwick,  A.,  on  geology  of  Ang^eeea, 
870,  378;  of  North  Wales,  860-866; 
on  the  Cambrlui  séries,  $ee  Gam- 
brian  ;  on  recomposed  rocks,  841  ; 
on  Systems  In  geoiogical  classiica- 
tl<»,  877;  hisviewB  misrepresented, 
867,  864,  866  ;  his  classification  of 
lower  palasoEoic  rocks,  864;  bis 
death,  840. 

Sédiments,  soarees  of,  10,  40,  76;  re- 
latedto  monntains,  61,  78;  c<mden- 
sation  of,  by  beat,  66, 71  ;  conversion 
of,  to  erystalHne  rocks,  4,  7-8,  14- 
16,  86-37,  48,  66,  67,  63-64,  884, 
386,817. 

Sdwyn,  A.  H.  G.,  on  déposition  of  gold, 
887;  on  gtoktgy  of  Victoria,  Aostra- 
Ua,  378;  on  geok>gy  of  Kova  Scotia, 
408. 

Senarmont,  H.  de,  on  artifielal  forma- 
tion of  minerais,  381. 

SepioUte,  138, 806, 800;  its  relations  t«r 
steatite,  817,  818.  8m  Ifai^esiaa 
silicates. 

Serpentine,  T^nrengan,  81,ê4t  oCqwMb=: 


INDEX. 


487 


Solb,  the  «hemUtiy  rf,  n,  05,  aae-Ms. 

Solution    ehatnimil. u'    .  ^     T' 


•edimenu,  808  ;  an  indlgwunu«î7 
«4»,  aoo,  886.8175  of  i^SS^oîZ 
1»8.  897,  800,  8185  nUlïïuw 
«ruptiverock.  M»,  «47,  M»,  816, 88«{ 

la»  •S?T'  P««Wlamori>hoM  odgiiL 
Mr.  lei,  816-81»,  8U,  iU«pp«£S 
çonvwlon  Into  «ubomtta  of  Itoeu 

8e2ÛlltM,»pho«ph.ttori»n,fU, 


ttooiU  gitmp,  416. 
8hale«,bltnmlnon,.    Bee  PyntebiBtB. 

a^Kjka,  »oy.  ScotU,  g«yt.^.to 


*  ^^     ^'"•vwjucswa  y  via  BS*  WO    ssn  ^  vQQ 

Sonstsdt  on  tM.waUi|r,  S^. 

M6;  on  the  nlatioii.  of  pnsanr^  to 
aolatfam,  66, 204. 

Sptoel,  énpp<>8ed  «Uentlon  0^88», 


Rhalaa   Ki»..«> ~      —  AKOnU     Watnni     «<».<...*.     .«^  x. 


Nuirai    Wam»,   contente   of^the 
Stlîîl^Tl''^  P«g«  M,  116, 18». 
i     ««ï  **°  «^eniJcaJ  tlïêbiy,  460, 

Staarolito-lMaiing  rapks.  88  .«73  9flo 
moTOd  from  watoM,  8a(  «laUona  to  St.  AW.«..  v 

804, 884.    AeQuaiiT^        '  ^  1** SÎ5^^ ^'^«^  wator of,  lie, 
SlUca  and  .Uloato,  io  waten,  u,  «,  „^     j^^''''  ^"^~'  8~lo«7  of,  878, 876, 

168, 168;  ilTOr,  water  of,  186, 160. 
»t  Léon,  Qnèbeo,  wator  of,  188. 
8t  Onu,  Quel»eo,  water  of.  186. 
Stéarine,  ite  équivalent  weight,  486. 

■W.800  818,880,  881,  884,  848;  i5 
suppoeed  eruptive  origin,  349;   ite 

«?îiî5^       breàkâ,  868,  876,  877, 


IM;  ite  action  on  majpiian'ealt^ 

8mcateofn«gne«U«noii,water>.    Su 

Magne«lnn»ilicate8. 
8|HcIfloalIon  offoMil,.  8»,  «86. 
S  dell  on  the  prebipitation  of  clay»,  M. 
Sil ver  in  «ea-water,  ite  eepanttion  ftwn. 

and  concentration,  881. 886. 
SUley  fonnatioii,â8«.  401, 411. 
Silttrian  «yrteni,  868, 866, 879-881, 488. 

^«J^''~»«»w.««».«e.488,ir: 

Jîïîs  S'  *"'  *?'  "PP"   •»      ««.'414.  

8flun><3aml>rian,  486. 484.  Sbr^atopora.  Dawson  on,  411. 

gj;;2^»^oftheAlp,.8H848.|^%^^^^  "*"^'*^  *'• 

»eletoooiy«tali,801,«ll. 
Skiddavr,  gMiogy  or,  878. 884. 418. 

SL^SL  ?•/•  """^  <>'''  H  «w. 
™"».  J- Lawwwoe,  on  aiucate  of  lime 
fton»  water»,  161, 


87, 117. 

Snlphate^  «heb-  constitution,  467;  de- 
compoeithJn  of,  by  beat,  108.  118; 
Wductioo  o^CT,  M,  146,  168   880 
absence  of,  trom  Mme  saline  watohu 
aL^**'  *"•    *•  Gypsum.  à£ 


fimyth,    WarringteB,  ^   Tutndanm^ ^.ZT^ °* "dMagnesla. snlphates of. 
=^ïS,  ««,  aS:  '        ^««ï«««> S"5*J».««tripI.ffl61teâe,464Ti2£ 


S:i| 


^f 


tlve,  origin  of,  88,  87,  99,  m. 


'       i?  V  '     • 


l  . 


488 


INDEX. 


•^ 


Sfalphiretf,  origta  et,  98,  111,  UO; 

Wufale,  in  natnnl  waten,  Itf,  160- 

183;  action  of,  on  olays,  99. 
Sulphtaretted  hydragen,  8,  16,  87,  99, 

188,  a8(i. 
Sulphurio  scl4to  witért,  111,  IM,  180. 
Sulplniroiu  Mid,   orlgia  et   8,   16, 

111. 
Sun,  conatitotlon  of,  86,  87. 
8wed«(i,  geology  of.    8ee  ScandinsTla. 
Syenit^  deflned,  184,  186. 
Synouàe,  New  York,  brinet  of;  119; 

serpentine  of,  810.  \ 


Tablb,  of  poroeity  of  rooks,  166;  cl 
lower  palieozolo  fonnatlona,  886. 
_Tachydrite,  108, 118. 

Tkconio  System,  166,  S61-364,  364, 
826, 888,  889, 891, 894  ;  fauna  of,  367, 
891;   distingnished    firom   prinfary, 
361,  836;  synonymons  vith  Lower 
and  Middle  Cambrian,  889. 
Talc.  '  Ses  Steatite. 
Talcose  sobists,  344-349,  861,  880- 
^    888,  841,  848,  888;  thetr  sappoeed 
psendoraorphio  origin,  816,  830,  896. 
Température  of  Earth's  snrfluie,  «m 
Ollmata;    of  Earth^t  Interlor,  «ee 
Eartb,  its  Interlor. 
Tennessee,  copper  Teiiu  of;  917,  960; 

geology  of,  366. 
Terranovan  séries,  194^876,  976.    8m 
Montalban  and  White  Uonntain  sé- 
ries. 
Terrestrial  cinnlatioo,  39, 996,  986 
Teton  Monntains,  geology  of,  969. 
Thenardite,  its  formation,  108.^ 
Thermal  waters,  167. 
Thompson,  Sir  William,  on  tha  ewth's 

interior,  44,  77. 
Tin,  288.    .ScrCassiterite. 
Titaniom,  81,  193,  900,  910,  988,  961, 

380. 
Topsham,  Maine,  Teins  of,  194. 
Tonrmaline,  196,  200,  319. 
Trachytesof  Canada,  186. 
Transmutation  of  minerais,  818,  896, 
Travertines,  origii»  of,  89. 
Trebra,  Von,  on  altered  rocks,  889. 
Tiemadoo  rocks,  868,  869-873,  874- 
876,881,412. 


Trenton  formation,  366,  413-414,  417; 

minerai  waters  tttm,  116,  138,  134, 

166,  166, 168. 
Trêve  on  magnetlsm,  61. 
Troy,  New  York,  geology  of,  407. 
Trinldad,  bitumen  of,  176. 
Tsohermak  on  feldspars,  444. 
Tnioaiora,  Ontario,  water  of,  180. 
Tyndall,  J.,  on  heat^radiation  and  cli- 

mato,  43,  46. 

UBSCBium  of  ScandlnaTla,  age'of, 

18,  369;  gypsam  in,  886. 
Utioaformation,366,421;  apynschlst, 

178;  minerai  watera  flR>m,'l24,  166.  ' 

167. 


VALOBann,  Switnriand,  conglomer- 
ate  of,  889. 

Vapors,  relations  of;  to  soUds  and 
llqnids,  466. 

Varennes,  Qaebee,.;waters  of,  134. 

Vegetablematter.   ;9M0iganlcmatter. 

Végétation.    8ee  Organio  life. 

Veins,  distingnished  fWmi  dikes,  108, 
909;  fossUs  in,  308;  pebbles  in,  304; 
banded  stmotnre  of,  198, 311  ;  fomuu 
tion  of,  388;  récent  origin  of  some, 
384.  Bt»  Oranitio  vein^tones  and 
analysis  of  Essay  XI.,  188. 

Vermont,  geology  of,  366-366,  8iMi- 
896,  403. 

Vemenil,  De,  on  American  palsBozoio 
rooks,  419. 

Vichy,  water  of,  86. 

Victoria,  Anatralla,  geology  of,  378. 

Viiginta,  geok)gy  of,  349, 366, 376, 407. 

Vital  fimes,  834,  386. 

Voelcker,  action  of  water  on  soUs,  96. 

VoellkQMrite.  989. 

Voloanoes,  phenomena  and  oanses  of, 
8,  16,  44,  69-64,  77,  Itl;  interven. 
tion  of  water  in,  6,  61,  68,  66;  distri- 
bution of,  and  relations  to  the  newer 
formations,  9, 17,  67, 67,  68,  71;  bis- 
torioal  relations  of,  68;  Hatl  on,  68; 
Herschei,  J.  F.  W.,  cm,  8, 16,  44,  66, 
69,  71;  Keferstein  oo,  16, 66, 89, 71; 
LeConte(m,79,77;  MaIIeton,78,79. 

Volger  on  the  fiUlng  of  veins,  803;  on 

pMintiimnirphUm^  yyy^  fj^^  g^^ 


.       .us'-/-;/ .,nA  ;   ,,i>â- '.; 


iiiâ'-"i-^ 


m. 


V 

\ 


i 


INDEX. 


489 


lofUkaSu- 


468;  Mirent  powan  o^  «,  «,  M,  M 
M«J  thay  are  laowMed  ty  pnason 
«.  «M,  S38;  ta  tha  fonnaUon  of 
«»Dltlo  Pooke,  e,  88,  W,  18»,  180; 
cohe.lonof,dtailiiUhadby«lto,10.      881.  '■ • 


•*ype,  46», 

»  of.aes. 

Vermont^ 
ibrlàn  aad  Sllnrlan, 


««na  of,  164-1B8.      Bté  uudyala 
.ofEMayXi,  98,118,,,».    •'"^ 
Wataivllma  formation,  «8. 

Wjltbjr  Ontario  wrtardf,  lie.  I4i, 
White  Moontata  rocka,  8jL  Ms.  ïir 


^?!î^  4**-'  °»»  Chemical  typea.  MO 
4«8;oiiradlolaa,4««.        ^^^  *"' 

^^  ?o '"^'  *"  *  ^""^  o'  «nteraal 
ww»  78}  on  gold  In  aea-water,  888. 

ZWMTM,  aolnbUIly  o&«:  modem  ori- 
«^  of  aome,  86,  aOjf  a»y,  U8;  as»- 
çtotion  o^  with  or&oclaâe,  6,  192, 
a06  ;  ara  hydrona/eWipaïa,  898. 

ZlMUnona  miiwnU,  of  New  Jersey, 


X. 


THE   END. 


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